People tend to believe that power imbalance that women and men experience in an intimate relationship is natural, the way it should be and of course, something that should not be debated. The problem with this argument and/or generalisation is that it usually suggests that hegemonic masculinity should not be interrogated. In Africa, power imbalances are one of the challenges that have limited women in society. This practice is influenced by culture, religion, traditional practices and laws which influence perceptions, and expectations of people in intimate relationships. This study, Power imbalances among intimate partners in Obio-Akpor Local Government Area encapsulate the dynamics of gender power relations that exist in intimate, heterosexual relationships in four communities.
This study seeks to examine intimate partners’ perception of decision making, the extent of its social acceptability and relevance of their socio-economic circumstances towards power imbalances. The population for this study was twenty-seven thousand three hundred and fifty-five. Sample size was calculated using the Taro Yamame determination technique which stood at three hundred and ninety-four. The study employed a survey research design which consisted of twenty-two items on a four-point Likert scale of (Agree, Strongly Agree, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree). Simple percentage (%) and frequency table was used to analyze the data. The study found that partners socio-economic circumstances did not reflect a significant degree of influence on power imbalances. This study therefore, recommend for responsive gender equality programmes that support and empower both partners.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
Dedication
Acknowledgements
Abstract
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
List of Abbreviations
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
1.2 Statement of the Problem
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Significance of the Study
1.6 Scope of Study
1.7 Clarification of Terms
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Theoretical Framework
2.2 Conceptual Framework
2.2.1 Gendered Power
2.2.2 Intimacy
2.2.3 Shared Relational Responsibility
2.2.4 Mutual Vulnerability
2.2.5 Gender Equality
2.2.6 Violence Against Women (VAW)
2.2.7 Hegemonic Masculinity
2.3 Empirical Review
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Study Area
3.3 Population for the Study
3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques
3.5 Sources of Data
3.6 Methods of Data Collection/Instrumentation
3.7 Validity and Reliability of Instrument
3.8 Methods of Data Analysis
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Socio-economic Characteristics of Respondents
4.2 perception on decision making among intimate partners
4.3 Relevance of socio-economic circumstances of partners for power imbalances among intimate partners
4.4 Extent of social acceptability of intimate power imbalances among partners
4.5 Discussion of Findings
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary of Findings
5.2 Limitations
5.3 Conclusion
5.4 Recommendations
5.5 Contribution to Knowledge
Reference
Appendix
LIST OF TABLES
3.1. Population distribution across Obio-Akpor disaggregated by age
3.2. Population distribution across Obio-Akpor disaggregated by gender
3.3. Population distribution across Obio-Akpor disaggregated by age group
3.4: Population distribution of select communities in Obio-Akpor LGA
3.5: List ofcommunities (urbans and pre-urbans) within Obio-Akpor LGA
4.1: Socio-demographic information of respondents
4.1.1: Examine the perception on decision making among intimate partners in Obio/Akpor LGA
4.1.2: Assess the relevance of socio-economic circumstances of partners for power imbalances among intimate partners in Obio-Akpor LGA
4.1.3: Examine the extent of social acceptability of power imbalances among partners in Obio-Akpor LGA
LIST OF FIGURE
2.1 Patterns of hegemonic masculinity
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/SYMBOLS
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am immensely grateful to my supervisor, Dr. Olanrewaju Lawal for his time and willingness to mentor me in the process of this work. I appreciate Dr. Heoma Nsirim-Worlu, the Ag Director, Centre For Conflict and Gender Studies (CCGS) and the Assistant Director Dr. Kialee Nyiayanna. I thank my lecturers Dr. Onyinyechukwu Onyido, Dr. Gbenemene Kpae, Dr. Fidelis Allen, Dr. Glory Amadi, Dr. Timothy Nte, Prof. Henry Alapiki, Dr. Charles Mezie-Okoye, Dr. Mina Ogbanga, Dr. A.U Nwanekezi and all other staff of the Centre.
Special thanks to Dr. Sylvester F. Udeorah for his encouragement and support. I appreciate my father Mr. Linus O. Amadi of blessed memory, and my mother Mrs. Felicia C. Amadi, my siblings Endaline, Eustace, Maureen, Vinaprisca, Elvis, including my course-mates and everyone I met and interacted with during the time of this program. Thank you and God bless.
ABSTRACT
People tend to believe that power imbalance that women and men experience in an intimate relationship is natural, the way it should be and of course, something that should not be debated. The problem with this argument and/or generalisation is that it usually suggests that hegemonic masculinity should not be interrogated. In Africa, power imbalances are one of the challenges that have limited women in society. This practice is influenced by culture, religion, traditional practices and laws which influence perceptions, and expectations of people in intimate relationships. Power imbalances among intimate partners exist, still its impacts are context-specific. This study, Power imbalances among intimate partners in Obio-Akpor Local Government Area encapsulate the dynamics of gender inequality that exist in intimate, heterosexual relationships in four communities. This study seeks to examine intimate partners’ perception of decision making, the extent of its social acceptability and relevance of their socio-economic circumstances towards power imbalances. The population for this study was twenty-seven thousand three hundred and fifty-five. As for the sample size, it was calculated using the Taro Yamame determination technique which stood at three hundred and ninety-four. The study employed a survey research design which consisted of twenty-two items on a four-point Likert scale of (Agree, Strongly Agree, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree). Simple percentage (%) was used to examine the demographic characteristics of the respondents. The study found that 68.2 percent of the respondents were females, while 31.8 percent were males. In the findings, it is reported that female partners were socio-culturally disadvantaged in terms of decision making. Although most of the respondents agreed that the male partners consult with their female partners before making decisions. However, partners socio-economic circumstances did not reflect a significant degree of influence on power imbalances. From the findings, it is important to note that majority of the respondents agreed that it is best for female partners to get a good education and decent jobs before marriage. Despite the growing recognition of violence as public health and human rights concern, it continues to have an unjustifiably low priority on human relationships. It is therefore, recommended to enabling circumstances that significantly encourage dearth of power imbalances among partners due to their socio-economic situations such as the ‘woke culture’ infiltrations including responsive gender equality programmes that support and empower both partners.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Not long ago, power imbalances is increasingly recognized in most relationships as some element that fuels inequalities and conflict among intimate partners, particularly those in heterosexual relationships. Hidden powers exist and structure many partners’ interactions despite their true and good intentions to each other Knudson-Martin (2013). Repeatedly, partners speak as if they are fully equal, unaware of the ways subtle gendered power affects their relationships, which has led to some partners hurt and frustrated, but they do not know why (Theiss & Solomon, 2007). In Africa, power imbalance is one of the challenges that have held women back in society combined with religious, cultural influences and the patriarchal nature of the African society Langen (2005).
In this day and age, it is believed scholars are currently looking beyond individual behaviours to specific factors and/or conditions that influence behaviour. These factors may include but are not limited to - social norms, patriarchy, and hegemonic masculinity (Connell, Messerschmidt, & society, 2005). The influence of these factors contributes to gender-based circumstances within intimate partners’ relationships of cis-heterosexual men and women as shown in various literatures (Theiss & Solomon, 2007). Gendered power imbalances, essentially, influence sexual interactions and decision making in which cases may increase a partner’s degree of vulnerability to gender-based violence (Wingood, DiClemente, & Jossey-Bass, 2002). These influences determine peoples’ views and perceptions of social issues through a cultural lens which had made it to be inappropriate for women to criticize and/or challenge their subjugation presented in their partner’s decision without labels (Mahoney, Knudson-Martin, & relationships, 2009). This is predominant, especially, in highly patriarchal societies like Africa where women often find it difficult to express themselves for fear of appearing rebellious (Pereira, Adomako, & Arnfred, 2010).
Similarly, these cultural expectations are shrouded in the ideals of society which can be considered stumbling blocks for successful contemporary relationships among the millennia Derlega (2013). In most society, the male partner is expected to be older than the female partner, further expanding the power differential, diffusing power imbalances in relationships particularly in Nigeria where age and seniority are of considerable importance in social life Bernardi (1985). In intimate rrelationships among cis-heterosexual partners, the female partner is by norms expected to honour, obey and submit to the authority of the male partner, a situation that sustains male dominance. As a result, many potential male partners seek for younger female partners who are even more vulnerable, in the misconception that they are more loyal and submissive.
Substantially, all these factors widen power imbalances among intimate partners which makes it difficult for female partners to discuss issues like sex, consent and sexuality with their partners especially when they are older and more sexually experienced Khaleque (2004). By this assumption, they are not able to successfully negotiate safe sex on equal footing with their partners including other life choices and decisions. The unequal partner is not able to negotiate choices or take decisions individually or collectively, this is because, in unequal gender relations, abuse is inevitable. Due to the following submission, Langen (2005) asserts that underlying all abuses exist power imbalances between partners.
The situation of power imbalances among intimate partners may differ across the urban, pre-urban and the rural areas and these differences can be associated with the influence of socio-economic circumstances, predominant cultural practices and local naunces that uniquely affect women. According to (Udom and Tobin 2019) the most dominate religious value system among the Muslims is Purdah and Izzat which encourages the segregation of the sexes and the incarceration of women to the family home. While the Christian religion sees an ideal woman as one who is humble, submissive, and does not question the authority of a man Bowman (2019). These religious influences infuse power imbalances among partners of which can be argued to have contributory factor to myriads of gender-based violence and abuse.
There are about four types of abuses as identified in the literature and they are; physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, and economic abuse. Physical abuse involves some physical contact between the victim and the abuser and it is well documented throughout history (Masci, Sanderson, & victims, 2017). Emotional abuse, however, is an indirect psychological maltreatment, mostly the non-physical abuse that victims experience at the hands of their abuser and/or oppressor. For example, verbal attacks and humiliation carried out to either control and/or diminish the victim by the abuser Masci et al. (2017). This verbal degradation, harassment, and belittling are some of the strategies used to control or overpower a partner in a maladaptive relationship Sackett (2001). While, eeconomic abuse touch on restriction of a partner’s financial resources by the abuser such as in giving out small amounts of money to an economically dependent partner, forcing the victim to be perpetually dependent.
Although, another form of economic abuse can be forced deposit of partner’s earnings into the abuser’s bank account, a situation that takes away cash from the victim against their will (Voth Schrag, Robinson, Ravi, & Trauma, 2019). In this type of abuse, money tends to be an extension of the abuser’s power Voth Schrag et al. (2019). In gender-based violence/abuse, it is believed that for every form of domestic violence, the abused feels powerless and believes that they cannot prevent and/or end the damage and pain the abuse has caused them (Peirce, Frone, Russell, Cooper, & behavior, 1994). As an addendum to the forms of abuses expressed above, sexually abused partners may experience refusal of sex and/or use of force to obtain sex which overrides the concept of consent. An abusive relationship is marked by a decrease of freedom on the part of an abused partner, an attempt to control and keep the abused silent Sackett (2001).
Besides domestic violence, other forms of oppression exist in unequal gender relations between female and male partners, in education, income-earning, and socio-economic status which is powered by male privilege and do not allow female partners to self-support and be in charge of their lives. Long ago, the United Nations Systems rolled out several treaties, frameworks and conventions to address issues around gender inequalities both in public and private spaces one of which are the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) 1979, outcome document of the World Conference on Women in Beijing, China 1995, and the African Charter on Gender and Development. These documents remain crucial to understanding and addressing issues of gendered power relations both in policy framing and programmatic designs. In Nigeria, major highlights of 2019 includes news of intimate partner violence– from killing of one’s partners to serial killing of young women by a male sex predator in Rivers State Murray (2017).
A close assessment of the above-referenced circumstances offer a tale-tall a story of power imbalances in intimate partner’s relationship in the Nigerian society. An increase of intimate partners’ violence present with other forms of human rights issues such as making more orphan and vulnerable children, loss of societal values, and increased burden on the social institution (Murray, 2017). Following these evidences, this study seeks to examine power imbalances among intimate partners in Obio-Akpor Local Government Area (LGA).
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Power imbalances among intimate partners is a global phenomenon and it is perceptible in both developed and developing countries. While the latter is a result of culture and patriarchal nature of most societies including Africa, the former has recorded tremendous reduction of intimate partners violence largely due to acclaimed global acceptance of diversity and liberalized gender responsive laws (Tamunomiebi, John-Eke, & Sciences, 2020). These, however had impacted their social and personal lives and in turn affect how low they performed. Yet, in Sub-Saharan Africa, there are so many documented stories of lived experiences of cis-heterosexual partners (Poteat, Malik, Wirtz, Cooney, & Reisner, 2020). Despite Nigeria being signatories to several United Nations treaties and conventions, including The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) which states that “equality between women and men is recognised as a principal in the international law”. There is still an imbalance of power between men and women, with women remaining significantly marginalised in critical areas of life.
Again, in Nigeria, even with all the ratification of various international agreements, situation seems not to be different regardless the theoretical knowledge of the fact that equal gender power relations enable partners to create intimacy and relationship success. Across communities in Nigeria, partners continue to maintain unequal power relations in spite of spiral social media narratives of young women assert themselves in intimate partner relationship. Several literatures according to (Khaleque, 2004); (Jewkes, Dunkle, Nduna, & Shai, 2010); Antai (2011) shows that certain laws (which are mostly unwritten) influence the ways things are done including in male and female relationship which significantly impact on unequal power relations among intimate partners and amplify incidence of gender-based violence; sex discrimination, low self-esteem, lack of access to leadership opportunities and respect of human rights of another person.
Power imbalances among intimate partners are capable of taking away individual’s agency– the ability of a partner to make choices and take decisions for oneself without questions Knudson-Martin (2013). Unequal power relations and women’s lack of access to leadership opportunities if not addressed, can create preventable social and development challenges in society including on a country’s Human Development Index (HDI) (Ranis, Stewart, & Samman, 2006). This study sought to respond to these identified gaps and proffer sustainable solutions that would inform gender-responsive programming in select communities in Obio-Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria.
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study
Partners use language of equality to frame their relationships Wingood et al. (2002). They speak as if they are fully equal, unaware of the many ways subtle gendered power affects them. In some cultural contexts, hidden male power continues to structure many couples’ interactions. This study intends to contribute to the body of evidence with regard to understanding any personal and family cost of getting stuck in power imbalances; and how individuals can become conscious of and move beyond gendered power in their relationships so that they can expand their options and well-being.
Power imbalances among intimate partners are likely to exist in certain cultural contexts simply because both men and women consider it somewhat normal for partners in a relationship (intimate) – to operate at different levels of power. To examine power imbalances in male and female intimate and/or romantic relationships, this study aims to find out to what extent unequal power relations exist and is socially acceptable among partners in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area and how this varies across different partners – per socioeconomic status, education level and religion.
The aim of this study is to examine power imbalances among intimate partners in Obio/Akpor LGA of River State. Specific objectives of the study includes;
1. to examine the perception on decision making among intimate partners
2. to assess the relevance of socio-economic circumstances on power imbalances among intimate partners.
3. to examine the extent of social acceptability of power imbalances among intimate partners.
1.4 Research Questions
For this study, the following research questions are put forward to guide the researcher:
1. What is the perception of decision making among intimate partners in Obio/Akpor LGA?
2. What is the relevance of socio-economic circumstances for power imbalances among intimate partners in Obio-Akpor LGA?
3. What is the extent of social acceptability of power imbalances among intimate partners in Obio/Akpor LGA?
1.5 Significance of the Study
The outcome of this study is intended to support the designing of gender-forward interventions to improve programming and guarantees successes for cis-heterosexual partners’ relationships. This study is important because it provides broad understanding and insight into the underlying factors that enable abuse and intimate partner violence in relationships that deter success and happiness. It is also intended to identify development intervention opportunities and strategies that may be implemented to reduce the prevalence of gender-based, intimate partners’ violence, and abuses. This piece of research work will be of immense benefit to development partners, the public, government agencies, and grass-root organisers that work towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) goal 5, which is to achieve gender equality and empower all girls and women. This study will also benefit the academia because findings from this study will add to the existing body of literature on power imbalances among intimate partners. It would also generate further research on the topic.
1.6 Scope of Study
The focus of this study is on power imbalances among intimate partners. The geographical scope of the study is Obio-Akpor Local Government Area in River State, Nigeria. Whereas, the unit of analysis for the study will be number of cis-female and male heterosexual partners in select four communities (Choba, Elelenwo, Trans-Amadi, and Woji) in Obio-Akpor LGA across various socioeconomic groupings.
1.7 Clarification of Terms
Power: It is operationalized here as the ability to assert some level of influence by one partner over another partner in an intimate relationship.
Gender:In this study, refers to the social classification of and assignment of roles to individuals in society.
Intimate Partners: Means cis-heterosexual persons who are involved in an intimate romance based on consent (could be married or not) but must be living together for more than a year. It is operationalized according to the United Nations (UN) documents on gender-related issues.
Imbalances: Perceived inequality in cis-heterosexual intimate partners relationships. It is operationalized in this study as an existing normal, which weakens a partner, mostly the female partner by set out norms considered to be a virtue.
Unequal Power Relations: This defines the extent to which power in an intimate partner relationship tips to one partner which includes the inability to make decisions.
Cis-heterosexual persons: Refers to individuals who were born male or female, identify and embody the same sex bodies that they were born with and practices heteronormative sexual relationships.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Scholarly works are reviewed with discussions on the subject matter being power imbalance among partners. Studies reveal varying perspectives about its nature, causes, impacts, and resolution techniques. Similarly, the concepts of power imbalances among intimate partners will be extensively examined individually in relation to each other and from various dimensions by reputable scholars. Evaluating these perspective will form an entry point of this study, which will thus give credence to this study. The researcher, therefore employs theoretical, conceptual and empirical frameworks in its literature review.
2.1 Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework employed for this study is the Radical Feminist Theory. This theory resonates significantly with issues around power imbalances among intimate partners relationships. It, however, advocate for reordering of society through the elimination of male supremacy (Flax & society, 1987). Radical feminist theory believes that society is fundamentally patriarchal in nature and men dominate and oppress women at will. For this reason, the radical feminists theorists targeted advocacy was to abolish patriarchy completely so that women can be liberated including challenging of existing negative social norms and institutions.
According to Jewkes et al. (2010) unequal gender power relations among intimate partners can be said to have originated and sustained by the societal patriarchal structure. Because patriarchal society promotes class oppression in which men oppress women since the inception of humanity. Radical feminist theory, therefore emphasizes equal individual rights and liberties for women and men despite their biological and sexual differences. Radical feminists theory has become the most widely accepted social and political philosophy among feminists (Antler, 2020). Similarly, Liberal feminists defend the equal rationality of the sexes and emphasised the importance of structuring social, family, gender and sexual roles in ways that promote women's autonomous self-fulfillment (Antler, 2020). They emphasise the similarities between men and women rather than the average differences between them, attributing most of the personality and character differences between the sexes to the social construction of gender which tend to promote a single set of role for both men and women (Poteat, T., Malik, M., Wirtz, A. L., Cooney, E. E., & Reisner, S. 2020)
Extrapolating from the radical feminist theory, it can be asserted that men benefit from the oppression of women. Radical feminist theory generally believes that most men, always benefit from the oppression of all women. And that patriarchy creates some form of dominance in relationship, where one party is the dominant and exploits the other (submissive) for the benefit of the former Antler (2020). However, according to radical feminists theory, men use social systems and other methods of control to keep women suppressed and this makes it sensible to say that by abolishing patriarchy as a social norms, there would be elimination of power imbalances among intimate partners and this would promote the enjoyment of equal power and status among partners; and ultimately lift efforts towards achieving gender equality both in public and private life Antler (2020).
For partners in Obio-Akpor Local Government Area (LGA), unequal power imbalances remains significantly high, the same as in any other society in Nigeria (Vyas & Jansen, 2018). In typical local communities, like those selected for this study, female partners are most likely to be unheard of and unseen. Female partners are appreciated when they are not seen questioning the dominance of and every decision of their male partners. Most female partners are likely to be economically deprived – stay at home wives and partners, are not encouraged to pursue conventional career paths, but just a few. However, this situation mostly occurs with less educated female partners, but again, the educated ones would rather submit to this system, attributing such power imbalances to what is obtained in their religion and culture. This practice and belief are, however, questioned by radical feminist theorists Williams, C. (2016), positing that religion and culture are elements that maintain male supremacy, dominance, and patriarchy in intimate partner’s relationship. Ideally, radical feminist theorists proposes full, equal, gendered power relations among intimate partners, where persons who are romantically involved uphold their individual agencies, own their bodily autonomy and equally make decisions for their health, rights and wellness without question Wingood et al. (2002). To this end, this study seeks to examine decision making, socio-cultural acceptance and socio-economic circumstances affects power imbalances among intimate partners.
2.2 Conceptual Framework
2.2.1 Gendered Power
In all known society, on the average, men appear to have more power than women. Understanding how power is gendered is important to understanding not only gender inequality but also how gender inequality maintain power imbalances among intimate partners (Pratto & Walker, 2004). According to Merriam Webster Dictionary, power is defined as possession of control, authority, or influence over others. In intimate partners relationship, gender shapes power even up to the highest level of political decision making. Inequality between men and women is about the most persistent pattern over the years and has affected the distribution of power.
In most societies, what it means to be a woman is to be powerless (quiet, obedient, accommodating) while being a real man is directly opposite (outspoken, in-charge, able to issue command) Langen (2005). Society sees outspoken women who care to speak up in public spaces as misfits, and this is a challenge to women who intend to gain access to decision-making and even in their own private life. It is generally believed that power equals masculinity, further supporting the notion of why most powerful people often demonstrate dominance in a way that is attributable to being male even when it is disrespectful.
In Nigeria, male cis-heterosexual partners assert masculinity (like the man of the house status) by making entirely most of the household decisions. This attribute, most time, put women in subordinate and exploitative position. A good female partner in Nigerian local parlance is referred to as “wife material” one with obvious demonstration of wifely and motherly attitudes, a position many cultural feminists hold firmly to Alcoff (1988). For example, the belief that women are better able to achieve peace in conflict situationsre-emphasised their non-threatening roles as sisters, mothers, and wives. This is to say that females have the ability to build capacity in others rather than to dominate them which suggests an alternative idea of power, the capacity to transform and empower oneself and others (Pratto & Walker, 2004). Therefore, the alternative perspective highlights that women can sometimes, have special forms of influence on decision-making because of their specific social status howbeit intrinsic in nature. It is important to understand that power issues do not dissolve simply because two people are in love (Pratto & Walker, 2004). Power is an inevitable and necessary part of human interaction, which is best when it is shared and used respectfully.
2.2.2 Intimacy
An intimate state can be very difficult to maintain except when partners hold equal status which involves complete psychological openness and willingness to be vulnerable. There are different layers of intimacy which includes but not limited to – physical and emotional intimacy Khaleque (2004). In this study, the concept of intimacy plays a critical role in the understanding of how partners experience relationships and how they move along the sexuality pathway (Wong, Hall, Justice, & Hernandez, 2015). It is the desire of every human being alive to attend satisfaction in their relationship. Through intimacy, people are able to build social networks, strong emotional support with one another which is necessary for mental health and wellness Williams, C. (2016). Intimacy reverberates the feeling and need to be wanted and close to one anotherHutchison (2018).
Moreover, the meaning and degree of intimacy varies within and betweenrelationships. And to maintain intimacy for a longer period of time, relationships must evolve around emotional and interpersonal awareness. Because intimacy involves the ability to be both separate and together in an intimate relationship Derlega (2013). It is important for partners to have the ability to differentiate themselves from the other even within the state of mutual vulnerability. Successful intimacy can create a finite bond for partners, although problems associated with intimacy among partners include difficulty in maintaining relationships due to experienced human limitations of each other, and fear of adverse effect of disrupted relationships Khaleque (2004). Also, factors like unemployment, unresolved differences, prolonged separation, new career opportunities, and a higher level of communication and support can affect intimacy. These factors affect the strength and weaknesses of an intimate partner relationship (Theiss & Solomon, 2007).
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