This study has analysed the grammatical errors pupils make when writing English Compositions. This study paper aimed at investigating the grammatical errors committed by grade 9 and 12 pupils in English compositions. The study had the overall goal of identifying the kind of grammatical rules the pupils break. These errors hinder learners from understanding the language and sometimes block or slow down communication.
The objectives of the study were: to discover types of grammatical errors that learners make when writing compositions and 2. to discuss rules that were broken for pupils to commit such errors. The research design was a mixed method design which involved both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Its targeted population was twenty-five (25) teachers of English and one hundred (100) grade 9 and 12 pupils from five selected secondary schools. Random sampling technique was used to arrive at Pupils to be included in the sample. Data for this research was collected using semi-structured interviews and written composition scripts. The compositions were marked with the help of other language teachers. Data was analysed and presented thematically using tables, graphs and discussions of findings. Composition scripts from the pupils were analyzed by looking at the types of errors made. The findings of the research revealed that the common grammar errors committed by secondary school pupils in Petauke District are: Verb tense, subject- verb agreement, pronoun, spellings, word order, and use of articles, double negative, preposition, and wrong word. It was also discovered that Pupils break grammar rules to make grammatical errors. The findings of this research may inform educators and language material developers about the grammatical errors pupils make and the rules they break to make such errors. The findings might also serve as guidance to teachers on how to assist learners to become better sentence writers. Ultimately, the project ends with conclusion and recommendations.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
DEDICATION
DISCLAIMER
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 General
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background
1.3 Statement of the Problem.
1.4. Purpose of the study
1.5. Specific Objectives
1.6. Research Questions
1.7. Significance of the Study
1.8. Limitations
1.9. Delimitation
1.10. Conceptual Framework
1.11. Operational Definition of Terms
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0. General
2.1. Error and Mistake
2.2 Approaches to Error Studies
2.3 Studies on Grammatical Errors
2.4. Types of Grammatical Rules Commonly Broken According to Writers
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0. General
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Research Methods
3.3 Research Instruments
3.3.1 Document Analysis
3.4 The Study Sample and Population
3.5 Sampling Procedure
3.6 Data Analysis
3.7 Ethical Considerations
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATIONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS
4.0. General
4.1. Types of Grammatical Errors that were discovered
4.1.1. Verb Tense
4.1.2. Subject-verb Agreement.
4.1.3. Noun/Pronoun
4.1 4. Spelling
4.1.5 Prepositions
4.1.6 Article
4.1.7. Double Negative.
4.1.8. Sentence Fragment.
4.1.9. Wrong Word.
4.1.10. Summary
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0. General
5.1. Conclusion
5.2. Recommendations
REFERENCES
APPENDICES:
Appendix 1 - Informed Consent Form
Appendix 2 - Introductory letter
Appendix 3 - Questionnaire for Teachers
APPENDIX 4 - Sample Marked Scripts
APPENDIX 5: Some Types of Errors in Sentence Structures
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I acknowledge my supervisor Mr. Zimba Samson for guiding me on how to compile this dissertation stage by stage.
My heartfelt gratitude goes to all my lecturers that molded me to this end; Dr Kabeta, Dr Kaira, Ms. I. Moonga, Mr. K. Ngulube and Mr. A. Banda. They really encouraged and inspired me to work extra hard.
The other people I acknowledge are Ms. Eleanor Munkhondia my H.O.D., for editing my work, Mr. I. J Phiri, the Head Teacher Nyamphande Boarding for encouraging me to go on with school and Mr. W. Lungu, Deputy Head, for tirelessly permitting me to stay away from other duties during data collection.
I also acknowledge the contributions made by Managers and HODs for the following schools; Nyamphande Boarding School, Lutwazi Day School, Petauke Day School, Petauke Boarding School, and Mtumbata Day School.
Finally, I acknowledge all teachers and pupils who participated in this study.
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my children, AzeleMwale, BrenardMwale, Mercy Mwale and Emmanuel Mwale. I also dedicate it to my cousin, Angela Chirwa for enduring as a woman of the house in my absence. My nieces, Keliness Mwanza, Getrude Banda, Thelma Zimba, and Rabecca Mwanza and my young brother Humphrey Tembo. They all exercised patience and rendered encouragement during the course of my study.
Special dedication goes to Mr. Masiye Lungu who endlessly supported me during the course of the programme. We have achieved this degree together.
Most of all, I dedicate it to my sister Elizabeth Tembo for sending me a laptop which made my study more effective.
DISCLAIMER
The views, information or opinions expressed in this study are solely those of the respondents and do not represent personal opinions of the researcher
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Errors discovered in the study
Table 2 Verb tense Errors, frequency and Percentage
Table 3 Subject- verb agreements Errors, frequency and percentage
Table 4 Noun/pronoun Errors, frequency and percentage
Table 5 Spelling Errors, frequency and percentage
Table 6 Preposition Errors, frequency and percentage
Table 7 Article Errors, frequency and percentage
Table 8 Double negative Errors, frequency and percentage
Table 9 Sentence Fragmentation Errors, frequency and percentage
Table 10 Wrong word Errors, frequency and percentage
LIST OF FIGURES:
Figure 1 Sample Size
Figure 2 Verb tense Errors, frequency bar-chart
Figure 3 Subject- verb agreements Errors, frequency bar-chart
Figure 4 Noun/pronoun Errors, frequency bar-chart
Figure 5 Spelling Errors, frequency bar-chart
Figure 6 Preposition Errors, frequency bar-chart
Figure 7 Article Errors, frequency and percentage
Figure 8 Double negative Errors, frequency and percentage
Figure 9 Sentence Fragmentation Errors, frequency and percentage
Figure 10 Wrong word Errors, frequency and percentage
Figure 11 Summary bar-chart of all errors discovered and their Percentages
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
ABSTRACT
This study has analysedthe grammatical errors pupils make when writing English Compositions. Researchers such as Abushihab et al (2011), Darus and Subramaniam (2009) and Wee (2009) have studied grammatical errors in students compositions but have not stipulated which rules are broken for such errors to occur. This study paper aimed at investigatingthe grammatical errors committed by grade 9 and 12 pupils in Englishcompositions. The study had the overall goal of identifying the kind of grammatical rules the pupils break. These errors hinder learners from understanding the language and sometimes block or slow down communication. The objectives of the study were: 1 to discover types of grammatical errors that learners make when writing compositions and 2 to discuss rules that were broken for pupils to commit such errors. The research design was a mixed methoddesign which involved both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Its targeted population was twenty-five (25) teachers of English and one hundred (100) grade 9 and 12 pupils from five selected secondary schools.Random sampling technique was used to arrive at Pupils to be included in the sample. Data for this research was collected using semi-structured interviews and written composition scripts. The compositions were marked with the help of other language teachers. Data was analysed and presented thematically using tables, graphs and discussions of findings. Composition scripts from the pupils were analyzed by looking at the types of errors made. The findings of the research revealed that the common grammar errors committed by secondary school pupils in PetaukeDistrict are: Verb tense, subject- verb agreement, pronoun, spellings,word order, and use of articles, double negative, preposition, and wrong word. It was also discovered that Pupils break grammar rules to make grammatical errors. The findings of this research may inform educators and language material developers about the grammatical errors pupils make and the rules they break to make such errors. The findings might also serve as guidance to teachers on how to assist learners to become better sentence writers.Ultimately, the project ends with conclusion andrecommendations.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 General
This chapter introduces the topic and gives the background. It further presents the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the objectives of the study as well as specific questions under which the objectives were addressed. Other aspects in the chapter are the significance and limitations of the study, the theoretical framework and finally a short summary of the issues dealt with in chapter one.
1.1 Introduction
One of the most difficult aspects in learning English as a foreign language is the grammar rules. English grammar is regarded as a system of syntax that decides the order and patterns in which words are arranged in sentences. Mastering grammar is a complex process that requires a series of decisions when and why to use one form rather than the other” (Celce-Murcia, 2002). In speaking or writing using English as a second language (L2), one needs grammatical proficiency. Shanklin (1994) suggested that “grammatical proficiency is both an important pedagogical skill and an important part in learning the target language. Basically, there are two kinds of grammar. First is the descriptive grammar which refers to the structure of English used by speakers and writers and second is the prescriptive grammar which deals with the syntax and word structures of a language usually intended in learning the target language. The study of grammar all by itself doesn’t make one a better writer.
English grammar is considered as a separate part of the educational experience. Most English teachers try to integrate the teaching of grammar in the four elements of the General English language courses at secondary level. Memorization of grammar rules is necessary to master the language form and its functions. People associate grammar with errors and correctness. Knowledge of grammar helps us understand what makes sentences and paragraphs clear, interesting and precise. Knowing about grammar, means finding out that all languages and all dialects follow grammatical patterns. Every school wants to build its name based on good performance at any level of secondary education more precisely at grade 9 and 12 level. During examinations at the two mentioned levels, pupils are tested in composition writing which carries the highest marks in the whole paper. It is because of this fact that pupils are trained comprehensivelyto develop their communication and writing skills. When pupils enter grade eight (8), they are trained in four core skills in the foundation level which include: Listening, reading, speaking, and writing. However, pupils’ level of communication using English language is definitely a problem due to their insufficient knowledge of grammar. Grammar has been a very delicate issue in English Language. While modern technology and social media have less formal forms of communication, employers still expect perfect grammar in professional settings. Glaring errors in sentence constructions are judged before the content of the work. To prepare the pupilsfor excellent communication, all schools need to enhance their grammar skills and familiarize the rules associated in it. The researcher came up with this study to analyse types of grammatical errors pupils make and establish the rules that are broken for such errors to occur so that pupils can be grammatically preparedbefore entering the tertiary level. Since pupils need to be examined at grade nine (9) and twelve (12) level, it is a must thatthey develop and enhanced their writing skills with correct grammatical structures. Therefore, identifying the grammar difficulties and thenestablishing rules that are violated for such errors to occur is a must.
1.2 Background
This study investigated grammatical errors that pupils make when writingcompositions in English.English is the world‘s most widely studied language (Theodore, 1988). Its increasing importance is largely recognized in Zambia where it is used for public life, for all further education, and as an official language of the country.It is also the language of formal instruction in secondary schools and it is examined at grade 9 and 12. Moreover, English is always counted first among the scores one has achieved. Without English, one is labeled a failure and finds it tough or impossible to secure a place at tertiary level. Therefore, an individual who wishes to reach the peak of his/her educational career in Zambia needs to have proper knowledge of English language. Yet a look at the pupil’s performance in the written English compositions has been rated low by the examiners. Secondary school pupils in Zambia commit different grammatical errors in English composition. These errors hinder learners from understanding the language completely and sometimes impede communication. In basic terms, the situation has been, and is still not impressive (Examiners’ report 2014. 15 and 16). 80 % of Learners’ writings are characterized by a lot of errors in the use of grammar. What causes them to commit such errors is not known. If the quality of English used in English compositions is left unchecked; the overall standard of education in Zambia is likely to go lower than it is at the moment because compositions carry more marks than any other component in the whole English examination paper. It is against this background that the researcher decided to investigate the types of grammatical errors that pupils make in compositions so that teachers can help learners to become better sentence writers.
Language is a vital mediumof communication in speech and writing that is used by people of a particular country or an area (Anand, 1993, p. 829).
Kleiser (2012) defined communication as the heart and soul of human experience. The process of communication mainly includes speaking, listening and writing. When one comes to learning a new course or subject in English language, one needs to study its grammar as the importance of grammar cannot be neglected. For good or bad, one has to contend with the importance of English as a world language. The knowledge of the world is helpful for career advancement or widening the learning of many disciplines. It is the kind of knowledge that many people today cannot afford to be without. As a result of its rise, and as a world language, English language no longer “belongs” to the English.
According to Cribb (1999), it belongs to everybody who can gain access and is owned by no one‟, (p.119). Although, there is no freedom for this tongue to take roots in the socio-cultural soil of the country, speakers and writers of the language generally try to conform to the standard of English spoken and written by the native speakers in England, United State of America, New Zealand, Canada, Australia, etc. in terms of grammar, vocabulary and even pronunciation. This self-imposed constraint made the medium inflexible for any meaningful creative effort. Most attitudes towards the English language tend to be influenced by peoples’ contact with the language in the classroom in an attempt to study “grammar” or the structure of the language (syntax). This gives impression that there are only two/three possibilities: the correct and incorrect; the standard and non-standard; the acceptable and unacceptable. This results in the concept of language as “grammar”. That is, the belief that what is not correct is not grammatical.
Consequently, the learners of English language must be prepared to develop their linguistic competence both oral and written for the effective use of the language. Brown (2002) defined language learning as a conscious process in which learners attend to form, figure out rules, and are generally aware of their own process. With this, the learners acquire language through a subconscious process during which they are unaware of the grammatical rules. This is similar to the way they acquire their first language since English language is used throughout the educational stages in primary, secondary and tertiary institutions in Zambia. Learners and users of English are expected to have thorough grasp of grammar as an important aspect of English language and use them correctly in spoken and written communications. Yet, it is common to hear teachers expressing a lot of concern regarding the state of grammar in the written and spoken English of their pupils. English grammar is the body of rules describing the properties of English language and grammar is the building blocks of the language. Many speakers of English as a second language have acquired some level of inter-language that is adequate for most informal uses. However more often than not, their English depicts errors and infelicities. In some cases, the problems are barely noticeable until the learner gets to the senior level of learning when the errors often become fossilized and takes special effort to unlearn. As a result, they find it difficult to overcome their errors emerging from their inability to master the grammar correctly.
Based on the experts’ definitions of grammar above, it can be concluded that grammar involves rules of how words and their component parts are combined to make sentences. Grammar is very important for English language learners since it is one of the important aspects to master communicative skills. A learner can be said to have a mastering of language (having competence) if he/she fulfills the main requirements, namely: accuracy (correctness), which refers to the mastery of grammatical structures, and fluency, which indicates that the learners can use the target language. Padadewi and Myartawan (2006) stated that, understanding of grammar plays an important role in order to be able to communicate well. Besides, it is also proven by the fact that in writing, speaking or scoring, there must be grammar aspects as one of the scoring criteria. Grammar is the basis knowledge and skills for understanding and using the language naturally.
Writing is a method of representing language in visual or tactile form. Writing systems use sets of symbols to represent the sounds of speech, and may also have symbols for such things as punctuations and numerals (http://owl.english.perdue.edu/ow/resource/685/1/). In case of composition writing, it means making a paragraph of words using letters, numbers, characters as well as writing materials. It is from this kind of writing where the composition in English originates. If this combination of words, sentences, paragraphs, numbers and other characters is not properly done, the pupils’ composition writing may not be satisfactory and may affect the learner’s Examination results.
A composition is a carefully structured piece of written work whose aim is to communicate clearly some ideas. A composition has three parts; these include an introduction, the main body and the conclusion (Turk &Kirkman, 1982).
For one to write a good composition one must consider the principles of composition writing. The principles of composition include clustering or brainstorming, outlining and organization. These guide the teachers or examiners of what they should expect in a pupils’ written composition and therefore evaluate the pupils’ performance (Colman, 1977).
When writers write compositions, they find inspiration in the connections between ideas. They can group the ideas according to how the ideas relate. Properly organized ideas help the writer see parts that need additional work or supporting details in order to boost the main ideas. Proper organization also shows ideas that are too emphasized and may need harmonizing down. According to Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary, cluster ―is a group of similar things growing or held together; or a group of people or things that are close together.
Other principles of writing a composition are sense of purpose, tone and language. Each composition is written for a particular purpose. Some compositions are written in order to inform or educate people. Other compositions are written to entertain or persuade a particular group of people. It is therefore important for writers to remember the purpose of their composition (Colman: 1977).
The purpose of writing a composition is usually related to the tone and the language one uses as they write. The tone is the combination of the purpose of writing and the language used. One should mind the words they use because a single word can change the tone of a paragraph or the whole essay (Turk&Kirkman, 1982). One should remember the audience for whom he or she is writing, and use a suitable language. Cambridge English Dictionary defines language as a system of communication consisting of sounds, words, and grammar, or the system of communication used by people in a particular country or type of work. If a writer has strong language skills, s/he has much better chances of communicating clearly and being understood. The language used could be formal, informal, and colloquial or slang depending on the purpose of writing and the people one is writing for. This means one should build a rich vocabulary and write logically.
Most pupils exhibited challenges when writing compositions. Firstly, they failed to follow instructions to write compositions to a specified number of words due to limited vocabulary. Furthermore, their work exhibited errors involving subject verb agreement, prepositions, verb tense and misuse of pronouns among others. They also used double negatives and sentence fragments. Secondly, they failed to construct correct sentences; the sentences were translated directly frommother tongue to English language. In addition, the spellings of certain words were wrong especially those with variations between British and American origin and homonyms.
In basic terms, the situation has been, and is still not impressive. Learners’ compositions are full of errors. The Same types of errors made by grade nine pupils were appearing in grade twelve pupils’work. Therefore, it was deemed imperative to conduct a study.
1.3 Statement of the Problem.
Abushihab et al (2011) studied grammatical errors produced by university students enrolled in paragraph writing class. They found that the most problematic areas for students were preposition, morphological errors, articles, verbs, passivisation, and tense categories. This study analysederrors committed by secondary school pupils in Zambia as opposed to university students in Jordan and compared the results.Wee (2009) and Nor Hashimah et al. (2008) also reported that errors that students in respective studies committed were basically grammatical but they did not report which grammatical rules were broken for the errors to occur.This study investigated the grammatical errors in compositions and stipulated rules that were violated for the errors to occur. Moonga (2012) conducted a study in Monze and Kabwe to find types and sources of errors in narrative compositions. Mukuka 2014 conducted a study in Lusaka to test the position of first and second language interference on third language learning.This study was conducted neither to find the sources of errors nor to test the position of first and second language interference on third language, but to analyse the types of grammatical errors pupils make and investigate rules that are broken for errors to occur. Literature reviewed shows that there is no study that addresses grammatical errors in composition committed by Petaukedistrict grade 9 and 12 learners in the Zambian context of education. This is the gap that the researcher wanted to fill.
1.4. Purpose of the study
The purpose of the study was to identify and analyse the types of grammatical errors pupils makein compositions and discuss the kind of grammatical rules that are broken for the errors to occur in order to assist teachers to correct them.
1.5. Specific Objectives
The study was guided by the following specific objectives:
1. Establish the types of grammatical errors learners make in compositions.
2. Determine the grammatical rules which are broken for such errors to occur.
1.6. Research Questions
The following research questions guided the research:
1. What types of grammatical errors dopupilsin PetaukeDistrict make in their English compositions?
2. What types of grammatical rulesare brokenfor such errors to occur?
1.7. Significance of the Study
This study was significant because
a. It may inform educators and language material developers about the grammatical errors pupils make and their causes.
b. The study might also serve as guidance to teachers on how to assist learners to become better sentence writers.
1.8. Limitations
The researcher encountered some challenges during the field work. In the first place, some teachers were reluctant to participate in the study. They regarded the study as a way of broadcasting them on their classroom performance. Secondly, they said it was going to consume a lot of time. Nevertheless, the Head teachers and the researcher reasoned with them and they participated afterwards.
1.9. Delimitation
The study analysed grammatical errors in learners English Compositions. It did not discuss these errors as part of the teaching methodology, but rather as a grammatical exercise aimed at educating the readers on the grammatical errors pupils make and the kind of grammatical rules pupils break.
1.10.Conceptual Framework
This study is framed by Error Analysis approach (EA) as proposed by Corder (as cited in Ridha, 2012, p. 26). This approach involves collecting samples from language learners, identifying the errors in the samples, describe these errors, classifying these errors according to their hypothesized causes and finally evaluating their seriousness. Candling (2001, p. 69) states that L2 learner’s errors are potentially important for the understanding of the processes of Second Language Acquisition. Olasehinde (2002) also argues that it is inevitable that learners make errors. He also suggested that errors are unavoidable and a necessary part of the learning curve. Sercombe (2000) explains that EA serves three purposes. Firstly, to find out the level of language proficiency the learner has reached. Secondly, to obtain information about common difficulties in language learning, and thirdly, to find out how people learn a language.Mitchell and Myles (as cited in Keshavarz, 2003) claims that errors, if studied, could reveal a developing system of the student's L2 language and this system is dynamic and open to changes and resetting of parameters. This view is supported by Stark's (2001, p. 19) study, who also explained that teachers need to view students’ errors positively and should not regard them as the learners’ failure to grasp the rules and structures but rather should viewthe errors as process of learning. He subscribes to the view that errors are normal and inevitable features of learning. He adds that errors are essential condition of learning.
1.11. Operational Definition of Terms
The following are the Operational Definitions of the terms used in this study:
- The whole system and structure of a language usually consisting of syntax, morphology phonology and semantics
Grammatical Error - usage error or bad grammar
Error Analysis - description of error to determine what grammatical rulespupils do flout and how they can correct them
Grammatical rules - Guidelines on how to use certain structures of language for its correct use.
Contrastive Analysis - An inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive
Interlingua Errors - Errors that result from language transfer between L1 and L2. - Errors that result from faulty or partial learning of the target language.
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0. General
The literature review, which is the theoretical foundation for this study is thematically structured under the following sub-headings: the distinction between error and mistake, approaches to the study of errors, and studies in grammatical errors.
2.1. Error and Mistake
According to Brown (2000), a “mistake” (in performance) refers to a performance error in that it is the learner’s failure to utilize a known system correctly, while an “error” (in competence) is a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, reflecting the interlanguage competence of the learner. Corder (1967; cited in Karra, 2006) referred to mistakes as unsystematic errors and systematic ones as errors. Unsystematic errors occur in one’s native language and are not significant to the process of language learning. As is often said, “a slip of tongue” is a mistake in speech (Boomer & Laver, 1968; Bears, 1992), in the same way, a mistake in writing can be referred to as “slip of pen”. Systematic ones, on the other hand, occur in a second language. Errors are systematic deviation from the norm or set of norms. An error cannot be self-corrected when pointed out to the speaker/writer but a mistake if pointed out to the speaker/writer can be corrected. As Bears (1992) indicates, a mistake is an action that is quickly recognized and corrected. Another way of identifying the difference betweenan error and a mistake is looking at the frequency of a deviation (Brown, 1994). The identification of an error by observing, analyzing, and classifying to reveal something of the system operating within the learner leads to error analysis (Sampong, 2014). A learner’s error is a reflection of lack of understanding of the underlying competence in the language that he/she is learning (Mezrag, 2013). This distinction is very crucial because it helped the researcher to establish the threshold of what an error and a mistake were.
2.2 Approaches to Error Studies
There are four approaches to the study of errors. These are Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) which is the traditional approach; Error Analysis (EA); the contemporary approach, Interlanguage Analysis (IA), and Contrastive Rhetoric (CR) as the modern approaches (Latiff& Bakar, 2007). Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) is the study and comparison of any two languages (Lado, 1957). CA holds the view that the structure of the first language affects the acquisition of the second language (Lado, 1957 cited in Brown, 2000). Contrastive Analysis, which is the primary approach to the study of L1 interference, focuses on the comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages, especially the sound and grammar systems of L1 and L2 to find solutions to L2 instruction problems (Richards & Schmidt, 2002). On the other hand, Contrastive Rhetoric is the study of how a person’s first language and culture influence the person’s writing in a second language (Kaplan, 1966). The term was first coined by the American applied linguist Robert Kaplan in 1966 and widely expanded from 1996 by applied linguist Ulla Connor (Connor, 1996). Interlanguage is the type of language produced by second language learners in the process of learning a target language (Latiff& Bakar, 2007). The term refers to interim grammars constructed by second language learners on their way to achieving proficiency in the target language (McLaughlin, 1987). According to McLaughlin, interlanguage can mean two things: the learner’s system at a single point in time in learning the L2 and the range of interlocking systems that characterizes the development of learners L2 over time. Error Analysis (EA) as an approach to error studies however is used to demonstrate that the errors L2 learners make are not always due to the learners’ native language but due to other complex factors. Ellis (2005, p. 54) viewed Error Analysis as being based on emergence of Interlanguage theory, which is known to be used to explain effectively the errors committed in second language acquisition processes. The model holds the view that factors like communicative strategies and the quality of second language instruction result in L2 errors (Hashim, 1992).
In this study, Error Analysis is used as the analysis framework because it can be used to analyze any type of error students make in their writing irrespective of their source. According to Corder (1975), EA is reserved for the study of erroneous utterances produced by learners of a language. Keshavars (1997) suggested that there are two branches of error analysis: theoretical and applied. According to Keshavars, theoretical error analysis is concerned with process and strategies of second language learning and the similarities with first language acquisition. Applied error analysis, on the other hand, deals with organizing remedial courses and devising appropriate materials and teaching strategies based on the findings of theoretical error analysis. In this study, theoretical Error Analysis is more relevant and is therefore used. Though Error Analysis has some limitations (Dulay, Burt, &Krashen, 1982; James, 1998; Schachter&Celce-Murcia, 1977), it has added a layer to the analysis and classification of L2 learners’ errors.
2.3 Studies on Grammatical Errors
According to Thornbury (1999), errors can be classified into three different types taking into account lexicon, grammar and discourse. Lexical errors are defined as the errors that are committed at word level. They include, for example, choosing the wrong word for the meaning the students want to express (I made my homework instead of I did my home-work). Grammar errors involve writing faulty structures which may include wrong verbal tenses, incorrect verbal forms and syntax problems, among others. On the other hand, discourse errors are those “which relate to the way sentences are organized and linked in order to make whole texts” Thornbury (1999:114). The study being reported focused on lexical errors.
The grammatical error studies discussed in this section involves both intralingual and interlingual. Kim (1988), in a study to investigate grammatical errors in English with reference to verb tense, mood, and voice, found out that mood were most frequently committed errors followed by errors in voice and tense. This study was conducted among 120 Korean EFL (English as a Foreign Language) students who were asked to translate Korean sentences to English. Kim noted that most of the errors originated from overgeneralization (intralingual), while L1 transfer and simplification were the least. Again, Kim (2001) conducted a study to examine the sources and nature of learners’ errors among 30 Korean college freshmen who were registered for TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication) class. Kim found that most of the learners’ errors were grammatical: verb tenses, prepositions, articles, plural/singular agreement, adjectives, and conjunctions. He then classified the errors into their sources and realized that the errors were both intralingual and interlingual. The study also showed that most of the learners’ errors were intralingual and that only a few cases could be attributed to L1 interference (interlingual).
Another study worthy of reviewing in this research is the work of Bataineh (2005). Bataineh, in a study to identify the kinds of errors committed by Jordanian first, second, third, and fourth year minority EFL students, identified nine types of errors in relation to the use of the indefinite articles. This is a grammatical error study. The nine types of errors identified were deletion of the indefinite article, writing a as part of the noun/adjective following it, substitution of the indefinite for the definite article, and substitution of the definite for the indefinite article. Others were substitution of a for an, use of the indefinite article with unmarked plurals, use of the indefinite article with marked plurals, use of the indefinite article with uncountable nouns, and use of the indefinite article with adjectives. Similar intralingual grammatical errors in L2 learners’ writings are found in studies by Ghadessey (1980), Sattayatham and Honsa (2007), Collins (2007), and Ahmadvand (2008).
In another development, Yin and Ung (2001), in a study of Bahasa Melayu EFL students with low language proficiency in English, identified that about fifty percent (50%) of the errors committed by the students have their source from their L1. The researchers used 50 written essays and analyzed, described, and explained the cross-linguistic influence of these students. The study also determined how the native language or mother tongue influences the students’ acquisition of English. The analysis indicated that lack of proficiency in English made the students rely heavily on their L1. The study noted that approximation, coined words and slang, language switch, medium transfer, inappropriate use of tenses, omission of articles, omission or wrong usage of articles, adjective morphology errors, prefabricated patterns, and literal translation were some of the L1 interference errors. These errors are both grammatical and lexical.
Owu-Ewie and Lomotey (2016) conducted a study on L1 interference in the L2 writing of Akan Junior High School Students. Data were collected by the use of documents (students’ written essays). The researcher used content analysis approach to analyze 90 written essays of the students to find out the writing errors of students in their essays having to do with L1 interference. The study found both grammatical and lexical errors which include transliteration, omissions, wrong word use; L1 induced spelling errors, and wrong pronoun uses. It was also identified that transliteration and omission errors were the most frequently committed L1 interference errors in the writings of Akan speakers learning English in the Junior High School. The study noted that some grammatical and lexical errors in students’ L2 writing emanated from their L1. Similar studies have indicated that L1 lexical and grammatical structures are transferred to L2 writing of students (LIU, Sung, &Chien, 1998; Lee, 2001; ZHANG, 2007; Koosha&Jafarpour, 2006).
In addition to these, other studies conducted in Ghanaian universities indicated that grammatical errors do exist in students’ writing (Dako, 1997; Gogovi, 1997; Gbeze, 1997; Awuah-Boateng, 1998; Edu-Boandoh, 1997; Mahama, 2012; Mireku-Gyimah, 2008; 2014). These studies noted the following as grammatical and lexical errors university students make in their L2 writings: concord errors, wrong register, wrong tense, wrong word use, wrong collocation, ambiguity, punctuation errors, and wrong idiomatic expression use. Though these studies do exist, it is crucial to look at errors among students who are a step below the university level which lays the foundation for university education. A study of grammatical errors at junior and secondary levels has implications for the laying of a solid foundation for good writing before the pupils sit for final examination at grade 9and 12 in Zambia.
Darus and Subramaniam (2009) studied the errors in the written English essays made by secondary school students in Malaysia. The findings of their study revealed that there were fifteen categories of errors made by students, and the most common errors were singular/plural forms, tense, word choice, preposition, subject and verb agreement, and word order. This study was conducted in Zambia not in Malaysia. The findings were compared and it was discovered that they were similar.
Zawahreh et al (2012) studied errors made by ten graders in writing English essays and found that the most prominent errors were subject-verb agreement, insertion of preposition, verb omission, tense, and word choice. This study also studied secondary school pupils. WhileZawahreh et al studied ten graders and left out other grades, this study covered grades 9 and 12 learners and had a wider coverage for data collection. This makes the findings of this research more reliable.
At the University context, error analysis has been conducted in Nepal, Jordan, and Iran. Giri (2009) found that bachelor level students of English in Nepal produced all sort of grammatical errors in the use of the English language, and the seven most errors were on conditional, mood, verb forms, tense, main verb, subject-verb agreement and question formation. In Jordan, Abushihab et al (2011) studied grammatical errors produced by university students enrolled in paragraph writing class. They found that the most problematic areas for students were preposition, morphological errors, articles, verbs, passivisation, and tense categories. While Giri (2009) and Abushihab et al (2011) conducted studies on students, this study looked at grammatical errors made by secondary school pupils in Zambia. However, the results are similar. It can be concluded that when grammatical errors are not corrected at an early stage, they become strengthened and learners move with them to the tertiary level. Hence there was need for a timely research such as this one.
In the Malaysian context, many studies have been conducted on common grammatical errors in the writing of ESL students. Ghabool, Edwina, and Kashef (2012) revealed that Malaysian ESL students have problems in writing, especially in language use (grammar) and punctuation. Students still need some constant monitoring and explanation from the teachers specifically in developing a good piece of writing. Thus, when the teachers spend some time reading students’ essays and providing feedback, it would help the students to recognize the common errors they made. Upon receiving the feedback, students should work immediately to improve their essays. The researcher discovered that the findings of this research would still work in the Zambian context.
Similar findings were reported by Musa, Lie, and Azman (2012) who found that students were too dependent on their mother tongue when it comes to writing. The interference of L1 was viewed as an obstacle to further motivate students to write and achieve good grades in essay writing. The researchers investigated all types of errors using the error analyses and contrastive analyses among 120 students in three parts of Malaysia. Their findings revealed the difficulty in using the correct form of English grammar was the main problem in Malaysian students’ essay writing. Three recurrent grammatical errors were reported including the misuse of articles, to be verb, and subject-verb agreement. They also concluded that the reason behind students’ grammatical errors was the first language's interference which is Malay Language in the context of the study. The results of this study were compared with the results of the current study. The researcher discovered that first language interference was part of the causes of errors that secondary school pupils made in Zambia.
Myles (2002) says that students who have ability to write in their mother tongue are able to transfer the skills in writing for L2 and having incompetence in their mother tongue may serve as a hindrance in writing in L2. However, this study has revealed that mother tongue has both positive and negative influence on learners’ sentence construction .Conceptual and contextual translation leads to correct sentence construction while direct translation and word for word translation from one language to another leads to generation of errors.
Wyatt (1973) studied the grammar errors made by the prospective participants of the East African Certificate Examination. He identified fourteen categories of errors. The findings of his study showed that the major areas of errors were spelling (18.4%), sentence structure (16,6%), verb groups (15,2%) noun groups (16.2%) and punctuation (7.8%). The other nine categories were less than five percent each those were: Pronouns (1.6), adjectives (2.4), prepositions (4.1), intensifiers (0.6%), confusion and misuse of idioms (4.7%), contraction, abbreviation and informalities (2.6%), repetition (3.7%), clumsy or meaningless expression (2.4%) and carelessness (3.6%).
In addition, Darus and Subramaniam (2009), using Corder’s (1967) model on error analysis, examined errors in a corpus of 72 essays written by 72 Form Four Malay students. They found that most of the students committed six common errors: singular/plural form, verb tense, word choice, preposition, subject-verb agreement and word order. Wee (2009) and Nor Hashimah et al. (2008) also reported that errors that students in respective studies committed were basically grammatical. Based on the various errors committed by students in previous studies, the researcher decided to focus on discussing grammatical errors in essay writing because they disrupt the writing flow.
Al-Haysoni (2012) argued that researchers in the area of EA are making advantages with their studies’ outcome toward learners and teachers at the same time since their studies provide vital information to the teachers on their students’ errors so they could correct these errors and improve their teaching methods by focusing on these areas of deficiency among students. And at the same time, students themselves could benefit from these outcomes by increasing their awareness for the type of errors in their linguistic productions and thus focus on these types of errors in more effective way in future. This was the line of thought that the current researcher took.
Furthermore, Ridha (2012) examined English writing samples of 80 EFL college students and then categorized the errors according to the following taxonomy: grammatical, lexical/ semantic, mechanics, and word order types of errors. The results showed that most of the students' errors can be due to L1 transfer. Furthermore, she found that most of the learners rely on their mother tongue in expressing their ideas. She added that although the rating processes showed that the participants' essays included different types of errors, the grammatical errors and the mechanical errors were the most serious and frequent ones. This research was related to the current research. But it targeted specific type of errors. The current study analyzed grammatical errors found in secondary school learners compositions as opposed to college students and compared the results to those of this study to see is they were similar.
Mohammed (2008) conducted a study on the analysis of the common grammatical errors in the English writing made by 3rd secondary male students in the Eastern Coast of the UAE in Dubai. His findings were that Emirati Male Secondary students still make many errors of various types particularly grammatical errors and consequently, their writing was below the expected ambition of both teachers and supervisors. The present study investigated grammatical errors. There was a difference in the study of Mohammed as compared to the present one. The study of Mohammed was gender biased. He excluded the females; the inclusion of the females would have provided a more concrete result in his research. The present study considered both genders. The analyzing of learner-language had become an essential need to overcome some questions and propose solutions regarding different language aspects (Erdogan, 2007). This was the frontier of knowledge that this study sought to address.
Regarding writing as a literacy skill, Farris (1993) described writing as a demanding but valuable skill which involves transforming thoughts and ideas into meaningful words and sentences. Young writers need to develop the ability to use the structures of language in an appropriate and mature manner. This ability takes several years to emerge. It is further argued that reading and writing have long been thought of as complementary skills. This study was aimed at establishing the types of grammatical errors that pupils make in composition and establish rules that are broken for errors to occurin order to help young writers to develop the ability to use the structures of language in an appropriate and mature manner.
Furthermore, Al-Buainain (2010) addressed the problem that students face constantly in department of English at Qatar University in their writing course. This study examined 40 examination scripts collected from those students during their first writing course in university. This study was based on error analysis techniques that as proposed by Corder (1974). Data analysis showed that students’ errors are systematic and classifiable to include errors in verbs, relative clauses, articles, fragments, noun modifiers, countable and uncountable nouns, and prepositions. Although this interest of research continues to grow, we still cannot find any study in literature that addresses the case of Petauke secondary school learners in Zambian context of education. Accordingly, this study was conducted to fill the gap in this area of research by examining the grammatical errors that pupils commit when writingcompositions. Moreover, this study was also interested in finding out thegrammatical rules that are broken for the errors to be generated.
From the Zambian context, Moonga (2012) conducted a study on written English errors made by Grade 11 pupils in a multilingual context in Narrative compositions. Her study was done in Kabwe and Monze Districts. The purpose of her study was to find out types and sources of errors among the Grade 11 pupils in their written L2 which is English. The current study looked at types of grammatical errors made by grade 9 and 12 learners in composition writing and discussed rules that were broken for the errors to occur.
Whereas Moonga examined the general errors committed by some selected Grade Eleven pupils from two districts, the current study is based on grammatical errors produced by Grade Nine and Twelve learners from the five selected schools in Petauke District.
Mukuka (2010) in the study entitled “An Analysis of Syntactic Errors committed by Bemba-Speaking High School Pupils Learning French in Lusaka Province, Zambia” examined the errors that are committed by Bemba-Speaking learners of French in Zambia. The study aimed at testing the theoretical position that First Language (L1) and Second Language (L2) interfere with the learning of Third Language (L3). Survey questionnaires were administered and were followed by written tests. The study revealed four major categories namely: Agreement, Word Order, Coordination and Sentence Structure. The results suggested that both L1 and L2 interfere with the learning of L3 construction.
Mukuka‟s study was relevant to the current study in that the aim is in line with the aim of this study; to identify, classify and analyze error in students’ written productions. However, Mukukas’ focus was on the syntactic errors made by Bemba-Speaking pupils in the learning of French in Lusaka District while the focus in the current study is on grammatical errors made by Grade 9 and 12 pupils in Petauke District.
Simbeye (2016)conducted an error analysis study in Nakonde district to analyse types of errors made by grade 12 pupils in expository composition and what caused them. Her findings showed that learners made a lot of grammatical errors in their compositions.She then recommended that pupils be given frequent and prompt feedback whenever they wrote compositions to quicklycommunicate the errors that they make as a way of remedying them. This study was related to the one being reported now since both analysed errors made by secondary school pupils. However, this study did not look at the causes of errors, but rules that were violated for errors to occur.
2.4. Types of Grammatical Rules Commonly Broken According to Writers
There is a distinction between the sources and causes of errors. Selinker (1972) reported five sources of errors. 1. Language Transfer- There is a positive transfer that helps the learning of a second language. There is also negative transfer that hinders the learning of a second language. Language transfer involves pronunciation, word order and grammars, semantic transfer, transfer in writing, pragmatic transfer and culture transfer. 2. Transfer of training. Transfer of training occurs whenever the effects of prior learning influence the performance of a later activity. Transfer of training is the influence of prior learning on performance in a new situation. 3. Strategies of Second language learning. This is an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language. 4. Strategies of Second Language Communication. This consists of attempt to deal with problems of communication that have arisen in interaction. 5. Overgeneralization of the Target Language (TL) Linguistic material. This happens when a second language learner applies a grammatical rule across all member of a grammatical class without making the appropriate exception. This study sought to establish whether these sources of errors were behind the errors made by grade 9 and 12 learners in Petauke district.
Huitt (1995) developed a transactional model of the teaching and learning process which classified factors affecting learning into four categories namelycontext, input, classroom processes and output. Context covers all the factors outside the classroom that might influence teaching and learning such as social economic status and state policies. Some of the factors that may influence the learning process are Emotional and Social factors. Personal factors such as instincts and emotions, and social factors, such as cooperation and rivalry, are directly related to a complex psychology of motivation. It is a recognized fact that the various responses of the individual to various kinds of stimuli are determined by a wide variety of tendencies. Some of these innate tendencies are constructive and others are harmful. For some reason a pupil may have developed a dislike for the subject because s/he may fail to see its value, or may lack a proper foundation. This dislike results in a bad emotional state. This is in agreement with Krashen’s (1995) Affective Filter Hypothesis which argued that successful L2 acquisition depends on the learner‘s feelings, motivation and attitudes. This implies that it is easier for a learner to acquire a language when s/he is not tense, angry, anxious or bored. Teachers play an important role in the trajectory of students throughout the formal schooling experience (Baker, Grant, &Morlock, 2008). Huits theory was reviewed owing to the fact that teachers have the unique opportunity to support students‘academic and social development at all levels of schooling which includes correct sentence construction (Baker et al., 2008; Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998; McCormick).
Despite the fact that studies have been conducted on error analysis, secondary school learners continue making numerous errors. It is within this level of their education when these learners are given a certification at grade 9 and 12. Their final examinations determine what type of certificate they get. English is always first among the subjects one needs in order to obtain a full certificate. One wonders whether this study is not important. Looking at the prevailing situation, the researcher was compelled to carry out a study on the grammatical errors made by secondary school learners in Petauke district. Moonga targeted the Grade 11 pupils, Mukuka‘s study was focused on French language. There is no trace of any study in literature that addresses grammatical errors in composition committed by grade 9 and 12 learners in Petauke Districtin the Zambian context of education. This is the gap that this study filled.
In a nutshell, this chapter offered a review of the available literature which has been seen to be of undeviating bearing to the present study and placed the research within the context of similar studies thereby inspiring it and providing a validation for it.
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0. General
While the previous chapter reviewed some literature done by other scholars related to this study, this section presents the research methodology used in the study and gives information about the research design, population investigated and sampling technique. It also describes the data collection instruments and procedures. It finally describes the validity and reliability of the instruments and gives information about the data analysis.
3.1 Research Design
As Kombo and Tromp (2006) state, research design is the conceptual structure within which the planned research is conducted. Research design shows the planned outline the researcher has opted to use to generate answers to the research problems identified. Arising from this definition, it is the case that a research design provides the basis for the selection of appropriate research methods to be used in investigating a given phenomenon. The current study employeda mixed method design which includes both qualitative and quantitative research methods. Mixed methods research combines elements of qualitative and quantitative research approaches for the purposes of breadth and depth understanding and collaboration (Johnson, Onwuegbu, and Turner 2007).
Qualitative research methods use non- numerical data and seek to interpret meaning from the data by understanding social or human problem based on building a complex,holistic picture, informed with words, reporting detailed views of informants and conducted in a natural setting Cresswell (1994). In this study, the researcher interviewed teachers at each school.A qualitative approach was undertaken in regard to gaining wider participation in the evaluation process.
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Laden Sie Ihre eigenen Arbeiten hoch! Geld verdienen und iPhone X gewinnen. -
Laden Sie Ihre eigenen Arbeiten hoch! Geld verdienen und iPhone X gewinnen. -
Laden Sie Ihre eigenen Arbeiten hoch! Geld verdienen und iPhone X gewinnen. -
Laden Sie Ihre eigenen Arbeiten hoch! Geld verdienen und iPhone X gewinnen. -
Laden Sie Ihre eigenen Arbeiten hoch! Geld verdienen und iPhone X gewinnen. -
Laden Sie Ihre eigenen Arbeiten hoch! Geld verdienen und iPhone X gewinnen. -
Laden Sie Ihre eigenen Arbeiten hoch! Geld verdienen und iPhone X gewinnen. -
Laden Sie Ihre eigenen Arbeiten hoch! Geld verdienen und iPhone X gewinnen. -
Laden Sie Ihre eigenen Arbeiten hoch! Geld verdienen und iPhone X gewinnen. -
Laden Sie Ihre eigenen Arbeiten hoch! Geld verdienen und iPhone X gewinnen.