The role of the school environment in learning Kiswahili in Kenya

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

ABSTRACT

LIST OF ACRONYMS

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Overview
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Statement of the Problem
1.3 Purpose of the Study
1.4 Objectives of the study
1.5 Research Questions
1.6 Justification of the Study
1.7 Significance of the Study
1.8 Scope and Limitation of the Study
1.8.1 Scope of the Study
1.8.2 The Limitation of the Study
1.9 Assumptions of the Study
1.10 Theoretical Framework
1.11 Definition of Operational Terms

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Use of Instructional Resources
2.3 The Class Size
2.4 The Language Policy
2.5 Language of the Catchment Area

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research Design
3.3 Location of the Study
3.4 Target Population
3.5 Sample and Sampling Procedure
3.6 Research Instruments
3.6.1 Questionnaire
3.6.2 Observation
3.6.3 Document Analysis
3.7 Reliability and Validity of Research Instruments
3.7.1 Validity
3.7.2 Reliability
3.7.3 Pilot Study
3.8 Data Collection Procedures
3.9 Ethical Considerations
3.10 Data Analysis

CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
4.1 Introduction
4.2 General Information of Respondents
4.2.1 Age of the Respondents
4.2.2 Gender of the Respondents
4.2.3 Level of Education of Respondents
4.2.4 Experience in Teaching Kiswahili
4.2.5 Type of school
4.2.6 Number of Years in Current Station
4.2.7 Teachers’ Responsibility
4.3 Availability of Instructional Resources
4.4 Utilization of Instructional Resources
4.5 Utilization of School Library
4.6 Use of Kiswahili in Debate
4.7 Use of Kiswahili during Interschool Competition
4.8 Class size and Performance in Kiswahili
4.8.1 Number of Pupils in school
4.8.2 Number of Streams per Class
4.8.3 Number of Pupils per Class
4.8.4 Individual Attention to Learners
4.9 Language Policies in schools
4.10 Language of the Community Surrounding the School
4.11 Pupils Ownership of Reading Materials

CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Summary of the Findings
5.2.1 General Information on the Respondents
5.2.2 Availability of Instructional Resources
5.2.3 Utilization of Instructional Resources
5.2.4 Utilization of School Library
5.2.5 Class size and Performance in Kiswahili
5.2.6 Language Policies in schools
5.2.7 Language of the Community Surrounding the School
5.3 Conclusion
5.4 Recommendations

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I: INTRODUCTION LETTER

APPENDIX II: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR KISWAHILI TEACHERS

APPENDIX III: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE LEARNERS

APPENDIX IV: OBSERVATION CHECKLIST

DEDICATION

Thanks to almighty God for the strength and blessings. I dedicate this work to my husband Marcel Omollo for his encouragement, inspiration and understanding, to my baby girls Natallie and Nicole, my mother Mary Njoki and my mother-in-law Pauline Omollo for their tireless efforts, love and patience which they offered to make this work a success. Asante sana! May God bless you all.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to give my gratitude to Prof. Ogechi O. Nathan and Dr. Wanyonyi David who were my supervisors for their tireless guidance, and my fellow classmates and other people who assisted me in coming up with this proposal. May the Lord bless you abundantly.

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: Age of Teachers

Table 4.2: Age of Learners

Table 4.3: Gender of the Respondents

Table 4.4: Level of Education of Respondents

Table 4.5: Experience in Teaching Kiswahili

Table 4.6: Type of School

Table 4.7: Number of Years in Current Station

Table 4. 8: Teachers’ Responsibility

Table 4.9: Availability of Instructional Resources

Table 4.10: Availability of Instructional Resources

Table 4.11: Utilization of Instructional Resources

Table 4.12: Utilization of Instructional Resources

Table 4.13: Utilization of School Library

Table 4.14: Borrowing Kiswahili Books from the Library

Table 4.15: Use of Kiswahili in Debate

Table 4.16: Use of Kiswahili in Debate

Table 4.17: Use if Kiswahili during Interschool Competition

Table 4.18: Use of Kiswahili During Interschool Competition

Table 4.19: Number of Pupils in School

Table 4.20: Number of Streams per Class

Table 4.21: Number of Pupils per Class

Table 4.22: Individual Attention to Learners

Table 4.23: Language Policies in Schools

Table 4.24: Motivating the Learners to Speak Kiswahili

Table 4.25: School Language Policy

Table 4.26: Frequency of Use of Kiswahili Language

Table 4.27: Language of the Community Surrounding the School

Table 4.28: Effect of Language of the Catchment Area

Table 4.29: Problems Caused By Mother Tongue

Table 4.30: Language Commonly Used By Learners

Table 4.31: Frequency of Use of Mother Tongue

Table 4.32: Effect of Mother Tongue

Table 4.33: Ownership of Reading Materials by Pupils

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Africa’s Linguistic Pyramid

ABSTRACT

Kiswahili is an official and a national language in Kenya. It is the language that is used for inter-ethnic communication in Kenya. It is also one of the compulsory subjects that is nationally examined but performance in it is wanting. There have been complaints about the poor performance of Kiswahili both at primary and secondary school levels (KNEC 2003-2009). There are numerous factors influencing such occurrences. This study was hence an effort to investigate the effect of causal factors namely; availability of instructional resources, class size, school language policy and language of the catchment area on the teaching of Kiswahili at primary school since this is the formative stage of learning. The study was based on the socio-cultural theory (SCT) (Vygotsky 1978, 1987). The study was descriptive in nature. The sample comprised of teachers of Kiswahili from selected primary schools. Fifteen schools out of 50 schools in Kapseret Sub County were selected for the study using simple random sampling. A total of 30 Kiswahili teachers were purposively selected for this study. Simple random sampling was used to select 30 %( 150) of standard six and seven pupils from each of the selected schools. The pupils from selected primary schools were observed during the teaching process and outside the classroom. Data was collected using questionnaires, observation checklists and document analysis. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistical techniques such as percentages, frequencies, means and modes. The study found that pupils’ textbooks, supplementary books, Teachers’ reference books/materials, chalkboards and teachers’ notes were available and adequate and they were frequently utilized as learning resources in the teaching and learning of Kiswahili. However, charts, school radios, tape recorders, video tapes/CDs and newspapers were not available and were rarely used in learning of Kiswahili. Majority of the schools had between 301 – 400 pupils while few had above 500 pupils. This might have contributed to the low academic achievement of learners in all subjects including Kiswahili which was the concern for the study. The study found that Kiswahili language was rarely used in school by both teachers and pupils as a medium of communication. However, majority of the teachers motivated the learners to speak Kiswahili by congratulating them for doing well in Kiswahili. Majority of the learners did not use Kiswahili language frequently to communicate while going home or to school and in school during free time. The problems caused by the frequency of mother tongue use were consonant displacement, direct translation, poor performance in Kiswahili and negative attitude towards Kiswahili language. The study recommends that schools should come up with clear and working language policies in order to promote the use of Kiswahili language. For example, all the teachers, workers and pupils should use Kiswahili when addressing each other, especially during assemblies and barazas. The findings of the study shall provide insight in understanding the role of school environment to the learning of Kiswahili at primary school level.

LIST OF ACRONYMS

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.0 Overview

This chapter presents the background of the study, the statement of the problem, the purpose, the objectives, research questions, justification, significance, scope and limitations, assumptions, theoretical frame work and definition of the operational terms.

1.1 Background of the Study

Language is perhaps the greatest mark of the attainment of civilization by human species. It is the only species that is known to use language for communication. Kiswahili is one of the languages that contributes to this civilization and is one of the fastest growing languages. Obanya (1999:29) argues that, Kiswahili is shared by many countries in Africa. It has the highest population as compared to other African languages as illustrated in Africa’s linguistic pyramid.

In that pyramid, Kiswahili is in the middle group of Lingua Franca as well as Fulfube’ and has the highest population speaking it. At the apex are the official languages like English and French, while at the base are over a thousand distinct languages. Figure 1.1 shows the Africa’s linguistic pyramid.

Ali A.and Mazrui A. M. (1998) states that the language’s growing instrumental and sentimental value has strengthened its potential for universalization. Instrumental value is collective and involves many people while sentimental value involves an individual where Kiswahili promotes the goals and aspirations of individual users.

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Figure 1.1 Africa ’s Linguistic Pyramid

Source: Obanya (1999)

Kiswahili universalisation also includes its expanding use in international broadcasting and its inclusion in programmes of higher education in other parts of the world. As the language becomes increasingly universalized, it becomes more consolidated and gains greater legitimacy as a presponderant language with immense instrumental and sentimental value to the peoples and nations of East Africa.

Kiswahili played an important part in the phenomenon of African nationalism. Africans in Dar-es-salaam, Zanzibar, and Nairobi heard speeches from the new breed of African politicians, agitating for African rights in Kiswahili. Politics in Kenya and Tanzania especially became national politics, with Kiswahili as a lingua franca. In addition to its collective instrumental value of political integration, therefore, Kiswahili began to acquire a sentimental value as a language of African nationalism (Ali & Mazrui, 1998:128).

Kiswahili has a place in national policy in East Africa partly because it is a presponderant language. It is used as an additional language by tens of millions of East Africans who outnumber the native speakers of the language by very wide margin (Ali & Mazrui, 1998).

Kingei (1999:414) asserts that Kiswahili, which is spoken and taught in most countries in eastern and southern Africa, becomes a natural choice for the literacy campaign programmes in Kenya because it is not associated with any populous and socio-politically domineering community. It has the oldest written and researched tradition than most of the other languages. Kiswahili helps to promote and protect the diversity of languages of the Kenyan people. It serves as a medium through which people from different ethnic backgrounds communicate. Indeed Ali and Mazrui (1998) agrees to this as they discus Kiswahili’s importance in facilitating urbanization. They say that it has contributed to decreasing ethnic behaviour, and has served as a lingua franca among the different ethnic communities.

Ryanga (2001) states that politically Kiswahili has been seen to be catalytic in enhancing social interaction and national unity. This is a major role that when examined its functions are seen in three folds: first, Kiswahili helps in the maintenance of political unity, thus enabling the state to deal with other states as a unified body. Second, is the ability to deal with internal conflicts and crises without a breakdown of social organisation. Third, is the attempt at establishing a linguistic identity.

Kiswahili has penetrated villages across ethnic boundaries. While its use in the 1970’s was pronounced mostly in urban centres, the 1980’s to date have witnessed its use among people of the same linguistic background and even within monolingual communities (Ryanga, 2001). Kiswahili is also a national language as well as an official language in Kenya (constitution of Kenya, 2010). The language has been so important, for instance according to the constitution of Kenya Amendment Act, (1987) all parliamentary candidates must be competent in both Kiswahili and English. Kembo-Sure and Ogechi (2009:17) proposed that all foreigners wishing to be naturalized Kenyan citizens must first demonstrate sufficient knowledge of Kiswahili.

Kingei (1999) asserts that Kiswahili is not just a national language as well as an official language in Kenya, but it is also the most depoliticized (of all the local languages) and the one with the longest history of use in the educational system than any other. Ali and Mazrui (1998) notes that Kiswahili may be one of the first indigenous languages of Africa to acquire scientific vocabulary. Additionally, Kiswahili has an advantage over other languages because it belongs to the Bantu group of languages that comprises over 66% of all Kenyans (Whitely, 1974 cited in Kingei, 1999).

Abdulaziz (1982) in Bunyi (1999) agrees to the fact that Kiswahili has the highest population. Indeed Poth cited in Mukuria (2001) agrees to this fact and indicates that Kiswahili is spoken as a second language by 60% of Kenya’s population. 5% more speak it as a mother tongue giving us a total of 65% of the total population. It is notable that, the usage of Kiswahili in the media and the civil service as well as in the political scene ensures that most Kenyans are able to gain wide exposure to the language (Kingei, 1999). Not only does Kiswahili boast the most profound written literature but it is also the only Kenyan language that teachers must pass in, to qualify for the profession in all primary teachers training colleges (Kingei, 1999).

Kiswahili is also used in national radio programmes and national newspapers. More so it is the primary language of command in the army, the police and the paramilitary forces in Kenya. This is similar to Tanzania and Uganda (Ali & Mazrui, 1998). After independence (1963), the government - appointed commission reports, for instance, the Gachathi Report (1976) that recommended the introduction of Kiswahili as a compulsory subject in Primary 3. There after it was recommended that Kiswahili should be included in the Certificate of Primary Education. The Mackay Report (1981) made Kiswahili a compulsorily taught and examinable subject in both primary and secondary schools in Kenya. The Koech Report (1999) also recommended that Kiswahili be a medium of instruction in peri-urban areas.

The choice of Kiswahili as a medium of instruction in peri-urban areas, as a subject up to grade 12 in Kenya is rationalized on the ground that it is detribalized and therefore provides a medium through which Kenyan children would conceptualize their world in a uniform way and thereby perceive themselves as members of the same nation. All these call for competence in teaching and learning of Kiswahili which will foster communication among various people in different and varied settings in the environment. This therefore calls for a good mastery of Kiswahili which can well be achieved through effective teaching and learning. Indeed, Kiswahili as a medium of communication should be improved because poor performance in Kiswahili will interfere with communication and this will slow the country’s development (Mutua, 2000).

Research reports indicate how Kiswahili is the lingua franca in most of the countries including Kenya. Kiswahili is the language that is used among people of the same linguistic background and even within monolingual communities (Ryanga, 2001). It is a medium of instruction in peri-urban areas, and a subject up to grade 12 in Kenya (Mutua, 2000). Additionally it provides a medium through which Kenyan children conceptualize their world in a uniform way and thereby perceive themselves as members of the same nation (Mutua, 2000). Despite the language having more advantages over other African languages, it is not well performed in our Kenyan schools. Reports indicate that there are many factors that influence learning for instance, large class size has a negative effect on teaching and learning (Chebet, 2006), instructional resources, learning environment, attitude and entry behaviour and teachers’ workload are significant in Kiswahili performance in secondary schools (Mutua, 2000). This is why the researcher found it appropriate to explore the role of school environment in learning of Kiswahili in Primary schools.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The ministry of education annual reports indicate that Kiswahili performance has been deteriorating (Ministry of education 2003-2009). This prompted the researcher to find out the reasons behind the poor performance since Kiswahili is a compulsory and examinable subject in the Kenyan educational system, it is imperative that pupils perform well in it. Kiswahili like other subjects is very crucial in both primary and secondary education. It plays a major role in warranting an individual selection to institutions of higher learning. In K.C.P.E. a good performance in Kiswahili as well as other subjects will warrant the pupil a good secondary school.

Similarly, good performance in K.C.S.E. will warrant a student not only admission into university, but it will also help the student in securing admission to some competitive degree course in the University. Effective learning of Kiswahili will hence boost the performance in the subject as well as promote overall performance of the learner.

Performance in Kiswahili has been deteriorating from year to year (Ministry of Education 2003-2009). In 2009 the national mean mark was 49.1 even though girls seemed to have performed better than boys. Similarly, in the secondary section the performance is wanting, in most of the years, it is below 50% mean mark. In the year 2008 Kiswahili was ranked the fourth subject out of five in Wareng District with a mean score of 51%. In 2009 it was ranked the fourth out of five in the district with a mean score of 50.73%.

In 2009 Kapseret Sub County had a mean mark of 51.77% and ranked as the fifth subject out of five in the merit list. It was also noted that some schools performed well to a point of obtaining a mean of 73% while others registered poor performance with a mean score of 39% (Wareng District report, 2010). This called for an investigation to establish the role of school environment in learning Kiswahili. The school environment in this study implies to the instructional resources such as books, the class size, the school language policy and the language of the catchment area.

The fundamental question that arises is: what are the factors that influence the learning of Kiswahili from the basic levels that is the primary schools? This is a formative stage of the child’s linguistic development. It is the stage at which the language gets its foundation. Scholars have cited numerous factors which influence the learning, For instance, Maranga (1990) asserts that resources and methods of instruction among other things affect the amount of learning that takes place, others who have cited various factors are Psacharopoulous and Woodhall (1985) showed that textbooks are an effective means of improving academic achievement. They further stated that, when relevant instructional resources are available, teachers and learners have materials to read and work with. This research sought to establish whether the school environment under which the pupil studies, affects the learning of Kiswahili which in turn manifests itself in the K.C.P.E. performance at the primary level. Some schools do perform well as compared to the others. Thus, the study sought to establish the relationship between the school environment and the learning of Kiswahili.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of school environment in the learning of Kiswahili in primary schools.

1.4 Objectives of the study

This research sought to investigate the school environmental factors that influence the learning of Kiswahili. In particular it sought to:

i) Asses the availability of Kiswahili instructional resources.
ii) Examine the role of class size in the learning of Kiswahili.
iii) Establish the part played by language policy in the school on the learning of Kiswahili
iv) Determine the role of the language of the catchment area in the learning of Kiswahili.

1.5 Research Questions

The research sought to answer the following questions:

i) What instructional resources are available in the learning of Kiswahili?
ii) What is the role of class size in the learning of Kiswahili?
iii) What is the role of language policy in the learning of Kiswahili?
iv) Does language of the catchment area affect learning of Kiswahili?

1.6 Justification of the Study

Kiswahili is offered as a foreign subject in approximately 100 universities across the United States of America. It is among the foreign languages offered as a subject of study at all the prestigious universities in the U.S.A such as Havard, Yale, Cornell. In Britain the University of London and York University offer Kiswahili to both home and overseas students. Furthermore, quite a number of countries have been sending their students to Kiswahili-speaking countries notably Kenya and Tanzania for intensive study of the language. Additionally, Africa has been very instrumental in providing instructors for instance in Kenya we have personalities in linguistics and Kiswahili such as Professor Ireri Mbaabu and Chacha Nyaigotti Chacha (Chimera, 2000).

Kiswahili is the most widely spoken language in Africa trans-nationally. It claims to be the East and Central African region’s foremost language of wider communication (Chimerah, 2000). It is a notable trans-ethnic lingua franca in Africa like the Hausa, Bambara and Wolof all in West Africa. It is the only lingua franca that has critical appeal as a politically neutral language.

Kiswahili is used widely in the Kenyan society both in the rural and urban areas. It is constitutionally an official and a national language thus it is the language that penetrates all the spheres of life in Kenya. Although it shares the political mantle with English but it dominates social interaction as well as urban life at a non-official pedestal. It is used in the presidential speeches and therefore competence in this language is needed. Competence will only be cultivated right from the basic level of learning which is in most cases mediated in the classroom by the teacher, through guided and independent reading.

1.7 Significance of the Study

The study examined the school environmental factors that influence the learning of Kiswahili. The findings will help the stake holders ranging from the Ministry of Education, teachers, school administrators to learners, understand the factors that influence learning the learning of Kiswahili in primary schools. The findings of the study exposed the strengths and weaknesses in teaching of Kiswahili in different school environments. For these reasons, the recommendations will help the educationists to improve the different school environment that is, provide enough instructional resources, which will help to improve performance. Moreover, the data generated in the investigation will generate knowledge that will be added to the existing knowledge in the area of school environmental factors that influence the learning of Kiswahili. Finally the study will form a base on which others can develop their studies.

1.8 Scope and Limitation of the Study 1.8.1 Scope of the Study

The study investigated the role of school environment in the learning of Kiswahili in primary schools. The aspects covered were the influence of instructional resources, class size, language policy in the school and the language of the catchment area on the learning of Kiswahili. The research was done in Kapseret Sub County, Uasin Gishu County. Standard six pupils were randomly sampled and used in the investigation because they could be able to read and answer the questions from the questionnaires easily as compared to the lower classes of four and five. It was difficult to use the class seven and eight pupils since the class eights were being prepared for the K.C.P.E. exams while the class sevens in most schools, were being prepared to be the next candidates. They were mostly involved in the continuous assessment exams together with the class eights.

Thirty percent of the total number per class was randomly picked from their classes with the assistance of the class teacher and two Kiswahili teachers in every school were purposively sampled. The documents examined were the class register that would give the actual enrolment, the District K.C.P.E. Reports from the District Education Office and the Divisional analysis report from the Area Education Officer. Data was collected from the respondents between October and November 2010.

1.8.2 The Limitation of the Study

Kapseret Sub County is one of the divisions in Wareng district that was newly created, and the K.C.P.E. results used were for two years since its creation that is 2008. The study was limited to the upper primary only since the language policy in lower primary and upper primary were different.

1.9 Assumptions of the Study

This study assumed that

i) Kiswahili teachers and learners will freely and willingly respond to the interviews and questionnaires.
ii) Instructional materials were frequently used in the learning of Kiswahili.
iii) Kiswahili was the medium of instruction during Kiswahili lessons
iv) The policy of the school allows communication in Kiswahili.

1.10 Theoretical Framework

The study was based on the Social cultural theory (SCT) and the process of second language acquisition by Vygotsky (1978, 1987). Firstly, the theory has it that the human mind is always and everywhere mediated primarily by linguistically based communication and secondly, mental functioning is mediated (activity theory). Second language acquisition (SLA) as a mediated process has been viewed in three general perspectives: social mediation by experts and peers, self mediation and the artefact mediation.

Aljaafree and Lantolf (1994), in the Oxford book of Applied Linguistics, looked at mediated learning in the zone of proximal development (ZPD) where the future development is negotiated by the expert to the novice. Second language (L2) development moves through stages that need mediation by the expert to a point where the learner is able to perform appropriately in the language. This is applicable to this research since proper learning of Kiswahili needs mediation especially by the expert who, in our case, is the teacher.

Mediation is done by the teachers and learners themselves through dialogue and correcting learners in sentence construction when reading and when writing. Comparative research has shown how teachers can engage learners in their ZPD through instructional conversations that scaffold novices into L2. The novices are the learners of the second language.

The dialogic teacher, according to Donato and Adair Hauk (1992), exhibits frequent use of proleptic interaction. This is similar to an elliptical teacher, who assumes a shared body of knowledge between the interlocutors but which has a specific pedagogical aim of drawing novices into activities they are unable to perform alone. Therefore, through dialogue the teacher effectively involves learners in their own learning. The pupils are active participants in the learning process.

The dialogic teacher achieves these not only through the verbal moves but also through pauses and gestures which frequently compel learners to rely on themselves rather than on the teacher while performing. This is relevant to this study since it affects the learning process of the pupil. The way a teacher presents ideas and the level of involvement of the learner is very important. The teacher who involves learners in quizzes, presentation of topics in public, answering questions and asking questions in class facilitates learning since the learners are active participants. The research sought to know whether the learners participated in quizzes and debate (mjadala) since by involving them the learners would be active in the learning process as a result learning would take place.

Peer mediation on the other hand involves dialogue among learners and this can be as effective as dialogue between teachers and learners. The learners have mediation strategies as cited by Villamilan de Guerrero (1996:61) in Lantolf (2002:107). They rely on concrete artefacts like dictionaries and textbooks which help them in learning the L2. They also seek help from their teacher in the areas they do not understand. This is also relevant in that, the study sought investigate the availability of the learning resources such as course books and supplementary books, the presence of a library and frequency of library use to facilitate the learning of Kiswahili, availability of newspapers, presence of debate and journalism clubs in a school through which learners are able to interact and assist each other in the learning of Kiswahili. The teacher is used as a source of reference in areas that the learners have difficulty.

Self mediation as expressed by Vygotsky (1987) is a process that involves privatizing speech that we gain control over our ability to remember, think, attend, plan, evaluate, inhibit and learn. Private speech has been well attested among L2 speakers. Appel and Lantoh (1994) in Lantolf (2002) have also researched extensively on the effect of language play on learning and they came up with an insight where learners at higher proficiency levels are less likely to play with the language than learners at lower levels.

Vygotsky (1978:103) proposed that plays open the ZPD in which children engage in activities beyond their daily behaviour and as such, contains all of the developmental tendencies in a condensed form and as such is itself a major source of development. The researcher agrees with this because; in primary schools play will always help the learners to learn. For example, the learner of English who walks in a classroom and quietly recites, ‘walking’, ‘walking’, ‘walk.’ The learner practices this through self mediation and is likely to remember it throughout his life.

Research has shown that there is a relationship between frequency of language play and learner goals and motives such that learners with interest in learning L2 for intrinsic or extrinsic reason more often experiment privately with the language than do learners whose goal is to comply with language requirements. This is applicable in that the learner who uses Kiswahili only once a week to comply with the school policy cannot experiment with the language. While the one whose goal is to learn the language for intrinsic or extrinsic reason privately experiments with the language which results to learning of more vocabularies, practicing on how to use them in their day to day communication.

The artefacts that help in mediation include gestures which are powerful artefacts of mediation in both the interpersonal and intrapersonal domains. People gesture not only when in face to face interaction, but even when the interlocutors are not visible as in telephone conversation. We also gesture when we talk to ourselves. Human mental activity is also mediated by other forms of artefacts (like computers, videos, tasks) that entail non linguistic features. Human activity whether physical, mental or social has a motive and is directed towards some goals. We do things that are significant to us including our own learning. We always want to learn what is significant. Activities are made up of observable (material conditions) and unobservable (motives and goals). Therefore any activity can’t be fully understood without access to its motives and goal. The research sought to investigate the availability of other forms of artefacts like video which helps in the learning process. The artefacts help in involving more senses in the learning process.

This theory was adopted to show the relationship between learning of Kiswahili and some selected variables such as availability of instructional resources, language policy in the school, the class size and language of the catchment area. In summary, the theory is applicable to the learning of Kiswahili in that for the learner to understand the language there should mediation by the teacher, self, peer and artefacts. The teacher mediates learning through assisting the learners in the learning process and ensuring that the learner participates in learning what is of his level. The learner helps to mediate the process by seeking assistance from the teacher in the areas he has a problem in and also using the artefacts like the course book. Peer mediation involves the learners assisting each other to learn. Artefact mediation involves the use of various artefacts such as textbooks, videos, dictionaries, and others to help in the learning process.

1.11 Definition of Operational Terms

Dialogic teacher: Is the teacher who encourages interaction between teacher and learners and encourages learners to push their development forward. Elliptical Speech: This is the speech that is two way. It involves both the interlocutors. The teacher involves the learner so that they are able to perform a particular activity that was hard. Infrastructure: refers to enough and conducive classes for the learners, desks. Interlocutors: will refer to the people communicating to one another, in our case the teacher and the learner, or communication among learners. Language of the catchments area: refers to the language of the locality where the school is. Language policy: refers to the language for communication in the school. Learning resources: refers to the textbooks, course and supplementary books, radio programmes, charts and realia. Novice: will refer to the learner of the second language. Proleptic Interaction: Is similar to elliptical speech. School environment: refers to the instructional resources, class size, the language policy and the language of the catchment area.

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents a review of literature and other materials relating to the learning of Kiswahili language in primary schools under the following sub-headings: Use of learning resources in primary schools, language policy of the school and class size.

2.2 Use of Instructional Resources

Teaching of Kiswahili like other subjects is affected by lack of instructional resources. Andala (1998) noted that in some of the best rated secondary schools there were few recommended Kiswahili textbooks as compared to the number of students. The ratio in primary school was found to be an average of one book for every four or more learners. Additionally, Andala (1998) noted that the recommended Kiswahili textbooks leaves a lot to be desired, in that some books the content is not well graded. Gorman (1974) in Andala (1998) in his survey notes that a teacher in one province thought that the recommended book was too simple for a particular level while another in a different province thought that the same book was too complex for the same level.

Koech (1999) notes that, the quality and adequacy of such resources as physical equipment teaching and learning materials have direct bearing on quality as they determine how effectively the curriculum is implemented. A wide variety of materials and equipment is necessary for play, learning and development of children (KIE, 1999). This observation is valuable in the present study; because some of the instructional resources are relevant to the teaching of Kiswahili in primary school and the more the learner uses most of the senses, the better the understanding.

Nkuuhe, (1995) and Ayot and Patel (1992) comments that words alone are liable to distortion. This agrees to the fact that instructional resources are important in learning since words cannot help the learner to a large extent. Instructional resources such as media, furthers hearing and creates or increases interests (Mutua, 2007). It is therefore necessary to vary the pace and source of information that has to be assimilated (Walkin, 1982). For instance one can use magazines, radio, video tapes, charts, maps, life shows as instructional materials to vary his or her teaching (Romiszowki, 1981). This is done in order to involve most of the senses in the learning. There is a belief among the psychologists that in human life people learn 11% through hearing, 83% through sight and retain only 20% of what they hear.

Kagia (1986) cited in Muruguru (2000) states that textbooks are important learning resource. Among the advantages of textbooks are that they help teachers in making the subject to be less abstract. Textbooks are versatile and flexible. They are applicable in a wide range of situations. Students can use them in class or at home, in small groups or individual. They provide information and offer students opportunities to use what they have learnt. Indeed, the study by the World Bank (1990) in Nicaragua, students who were given textbooks scored higher marks on tests than those without textbooks. Muruguru (2000) adds, that similarly in Brazil 2nd and 4th grade student who received textbooks scored significantly higher in the test of mathematics than students without textbooks. Moreover, occurrence of the desired learning can best be achieved through mobilization of instructional materials such as verbal presentation, use of media and printed communication (Komar, 1991).

In the study on availability and utilization of instructional resources for teaching Kiswahili grammar in secondary schools in Bungoma district, Luvisia (2003) revealed that the available instructional resources were insufficient and teachers rely on the chalk and talk method to teach Kiswahili grammar and came to the basic conclusion that students do not performance well in Kiswahili grammar because of insufficient resources.

Studies have established that the availability of reading materials was a crucial aspect of language learning. Okwako (1994) established that, reading widely requires a student who has the ability to read materials willingly without any difficulty. A student will require different types of materials that are not just concerned with vocabulary but also interesting according to his/her age, environment, experiences and views concerning various issues. In short there must be different types of books magazines and journals at the student’s disposal. This is applicable to this research since it is investigating on the availability of different reading materials that will facilitate language learning.

Munyillu (1995) carried out a survey of instructional resources for teaching mathematics in Kathonzweni Educational zone and found out that the instructional materials for teaching mathematics were insufficient and accused the teacher of poor attitude towards the preparation and use of instructional media resources. This is also relevant to the study since, if some school do not have the learning materials which might be due to the poor attitude, they may be contributing negatively to the learning process, since they should be able to improvise what is available. Indeed Ogoma (1987), survey through his survey research on instructional resources for the teaching of social studies in primary school, confirmed that teachers were hot eager to use resources or produce them. Among the reasons given for not using resources are lack of preparation, time and funds for purchasing the relevant materials. Though the research was in social studies, it is relevant to Kiswahili since these are the same teachers who teach it. Therefore, this study intended to investigate whether the teachers gave the same reasons or not.

Komar (1991) asserts that media is valuable instruction because its present clearly to the sense, sensible objects so that they can be appreciated early. Indeed, Ogula and Onsogo (2000) have established that, instructional resources attract the attention of the learners. A picture on the screen, a question on the board or music playing as students enter the lesson all serve to get students’ attention. It also helps the students to recall what is learnt and enhance retention and transfer of knowledge. They help the students to visualize a lesson and transfer abstract concepts into concrete objects that are easier to comprehend.

Digolo (1980) who conducted a survey on the utilization of community resources by primary schools in Kenya, to provide relevant education recommended that, the use of community resources as a means of providing the students with direct experiences should be encouraged not only at primary school level but at secondary school level. Additionally teachers who utilize community resources in their instruction and students who were exposed to these resources perform better than those whose teachers did not use them.

Richard and Rodgers (1964) argued that teachers reject instructional resources because of the following; ignorance of their usefulness, rejection through erroneous logic, rejection by maintaining the status quo and rejection through interpersonal influence. This is relevant to the current study since it guided the researcher in answering the research question on the availability of learning resources.

2.3 The Class Size

Class size refers to the actual number of pupils taught by a teacher at a particular time. It can vary considerably from a single child at different times during a school day and a school year, because of mobility, learners absence and truancy (Kilel, 2006). The implementation of the universal primary Education in the year 2003 aimed at providing and attaining basic education for all Kenyans by 2015. It however resulted to increased public enrolment in public primary schools against the background, disproportionate increase in physical and sustainable facilities, learning materials equipments and teachers (Koech, 1999). There was an addition of 1.5 million children joined public primary schools. The government was and is still firm to enrol every child of primary school going age in schools (Republic of Kenya, 2003).

Hoxby (1998) notes that there is still dissonance in research literature concerning the effects of class size, especially on academic performance, with some studies reporting significant effects, while others indicate little or no significant effect of class size on the learning outcomes. Ng’ang’a (2004) states that, the influx of pupils has led to the swelling of classes with an average classroom having 70 pupils, with a single teacher per class, while classrooms and desks are inadequate hence many sit on the floor.

Kilel (2006) states that, packing pupils in such classrooms where they strain to see the teacher is unlikely to inspire hope in them. Ng’ang’a (2004) adds that, learners can only be retained in school if they see the value of being in school. He further said that one way of doing this is to ensure that they are taught in manageable situations. Koskei (2001) found out that, the student teacher ratio and the total school enrolment has a positive effect on teaching effectiveness and academic performance. Wolf (1990) adds to this, by comparing what happens in small classes and large classes. In small classes the teachers know pupils not only by name but also character and consequently knowing how to treat each other to get the best out of them. Ng’ang’a (2004) also raises the fear that increase in the pupils number without related increase in number of staff will result in decline of quality of education. Thus due to large class size there is no possibility of individual relationship between all pupils and the teacher.

Glass and smith (1978) in Kilel (2006) stated that several qualitative studies indicated that teachers, headteachers and parents believe that class size impacts on pupils’ learning, thus the researcher wanted to explore whether the class size had an impact on the learning process. That is whether the schools with few pupils performed well or those with more pupils. The teacher pupil ratio is an important element in learning. The ministry’s target is the ratio of 1:45 in every school; however this has not been the case due to the establishment of free Primary Education that has made the ration to rises (Elimu Newsletter, 2010). According to Ravikin et al (2000) cited by Blatchford (2003:160) “of either supporting teacher training to improve teacher quality, or reducing class sizes.’’ They suggested that we need to consider ways of making the most of the opportunities of smaller classes.”

Robertson (2005) stated that, nine out of ten Kenyan teachers prefer to house small classes, because students achieve better results. However, in the Guillimette research, Robertson (2005) claimed that large classes are often better than smaller classes. Students achieve better in large classes.’ Guillimette research in 2004 of Ontario secondary school showed that large classes achieve better results, especially in science and mathematics classes and higher achievement is found mainly in a class of thirty or above. Politicians, the public and teachers disagreed with Guillimettes findings, according to Robertson. This is because he claimed that large classes have nothing to do with students’ achievements but, the quality of the teachers affects the learning of the students.

Blatchford (2003) argued that, there is no relationship between the quality and experience of teachers and the size of the classes they teach. He studied a few selected schools and the results indicated that there is no correlation of class size and students achievement with the quality of the teachers involved. He added that staff may experience lack of sleep because they are worrying about the students and cannot sleep with the stress caused by large classes. This is relevant since it helped the researcher to understand class size in relation to learning of Kiswahili.

Gibbs and Jenkins (1992), who researched problems of large classes of students, claimed that although students and staff may enjoy and exchange experiences in the class, they still focused on the problems posed by having large classes. Indeed, Barley and Nunan (1996) confirmed the ideas of Gibbs and Jenkins by stating that, a class of twenty-nine is considered as too many as not only is the number affecting the quality of teaching; but it also affects the intake of the knowledge by the students. Some problems that may arise from large class are;

i) Restricting the movement of the teacher. Teachers are unable to move freely in the classroom because it is overcrowded.
ii) There are more distractions and more tendencies that students are being off-task while they work Blatchford (2003).

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