Antioxidant and Haemotological Properties of Nigella sativa, Carica papaya and Boswellia sacra. An Experiment

Trabajo de Investigación , 2019 , 30 Páginas , Calificación: 5.0

Biología - Citología

This work examines the impact of the medical plants Nigella sativa, Carica papaya and Boswellia sacra with the help of an experiment conducted with fifty female albino mice.

Nigella sativa, Carica papaya and Boswellia sacra are medicinal plants in the commonly used in folkloric medicine due to the presence of its immense therapeutic properties. Fifty (50) female albino mice weighing between 15-22g were divided into five groups of 10 mice each. Animal in group 1 served as control group and were administered distilled water while animal in group 2 were given 2ml of cisplatin (orally). Animal in group 3-5 were given orally; 100 mg/kg (low dose), 200 mg/kg (medium dose) and 400 mg/kg (high dose) of triherbal preparation. The feeding regimens lasted for 28 days. After 28 days, mammary gland and blood samples were collected for haematological and antioxidant analysis.

The triherbal formula decreased the GSH and MDA levels of mice treated with 100 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg doses compare to control. The measurement of total protein content, SOD and CAT increased in treated animals compared to control. However, RBC (Red Blood Cell) counts significantly decreased in the low, medium and high dose groups (0.95±0.08, 6.57±0.08 and 3.55±0.55 x 106 cells/mm3 respectively) compared to control (7.34±0.40) at P<0.05. Also, significant decreases (P<0.05) in the level of the total WBC (White Blood Cell) count, platelet count, PCV (Packed Cell Volume) and Hb (haemoglobin) concentration were observed. The decreases were dose dependent. The MCH (Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin) and MCHC (Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentration) except MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) significantly decreased in treated group only. The triherbal formulation exhibited significant antioxidant activities showing increased levels of SOD, CAT and Protein content due to activation of the enzyme involve in detoxification of free radicals and decreased in the level of GSH and MDA due to accumulation of peroxides and H2O2. Also, decreased in haematological parameters due to the presence of phytochemicals such as phenol, resins, saponins, sterols, tannis and terpenes in the triherbal formula.

Therefore, it has potential to induce haematotoxicity hence consumption of high concentrations should be discouraged.

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Plant materials and Sample preparations
2.2Animal Procurement and Conditioning
2.3 Acute toxicity (LD50) study
2.4 Experimental Design and Grouping
2.4.1 Animals Sacrifice
2.5 Haematological Measurements
2.5.1 Determination of packed cell volume (PCV)
2.5.2 Determination of total white blood cell counts
2.5.3 Determination of heamoglobin (Hb
2.5.4. Other blood indices
2.5.5 Differential blood counts (DC)
2.5.5.1 May-Grünwald staining
2.6. Biochemical Analyses
2.6.1. Sample preparation (tissue homogenate)
2.6.2. Protein estimation
2.6.3. Estimation of glutathione
2.6.4. Estimation of Superoxide Dismutase Activity (SOD)
2.6.5 Estimation of catalase in breast
2.6.6 Estimation of Malondialdehyde Level in breast
2.7 Statistical analysis

3 Result
3.1 Morphological results
3.2 Antioxidant biomarkers result
3.3 Effect of plants extract on the Haematological parameters

4. Discussion

References

Abstract

Nigella sativa, Carica papaya and Boswellia sacra are medicinal plants in the commonly used in folkloric medicine due to the presence of its immense therapeutic properties. Fifty (50) female albino mice weighing between 15-22g were divided into five groups of 10 mice each. Animal in group 1 served as control group and were administered distilled water while animal in group 2 were given 2ml of cisplatin (orally). Animal in group 3-5 were given orally; 100 mg/kg (low dose), 200 mg/kg (medium dose) and 400 mg/kg (high dose) of triherbal preparation. The feeding regimens lasted for 28 days. After 28 days, mammary gland and blood samples were collected for haematological and antioxidant analysis. The triherbal formula decreased the GSH and MDA levels of mice treated with 100 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg doses compare to control. The measurement of total protein content, SOD and CAT increased in treated animals compared to control. However, RBC (Red Blood Cell) counts significantly decreased in the low, medium and high dose groups (0.95±0.08, 6.57±0.08 and 3.55±0.55 x 10[6] cells/mm[3] respectively) compared to control (7.34±0.40) at P<0.05. Also, significant decreases (P<0.05) in the level of the total WBC (White Blood Cell) count, platelet count, PCV (Packed Cell Volume) and Hb (haemoglobin) concentration were observed. The decreases were dose dependent. The MCH (Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin) and MCHC (Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentration) except MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) significantly decreased in treated group only. The triherbal formulation exhibited significant antioxidant activities showing increased levels of SOD, CAT and Protein content due to activation of the enzyme involve in detoxification of free radicals and decreased in the level of GSH and MDA due to accumulation of peroxides and H2O2. Also, decreased in haematological parameters due to the presence of phytochemicals such as phenol, resins, saponins, sterols, tannis and terpenes in the triherbal formula. Therefore, it has potential to induce haematotoxicity hence consumption of high concentrations should be discouraged.

Keywords: Nigella sativa, Carica papaya, Boswellia sacra, Antioxidant and Haematology

1. Introduction

Over the years, plants have been used by humans as medicine to treat a vast number of diseases. The use of medicinal plants cuts across cultural lines as various traditional systems of medicine (Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001). In Africa, the use of Egyptian traditional medicine dates from about 2900 B.C. In most African traditional societies, herbal remedies were often prepared as crude extract of medicinal plant organs such as leaves, roots, flowers and barks (Telefo et al., 2011; Fatima et al., 2013).

Today, the popularity of traditional medicine has greatly increased across the world in both developed and developing nations. The World Health Organization estimates that about 80% of the populations in developing nations use traditional medicines, most of which are plant based remedies as complementary or alternative medicine (WHO, 2005).

Various factors can be attributed to the increase in the use of plant based remedies. They may include: economic considerations such as high cost of conventional medicines, perceived lower toxicity and fewer side effects of plant based medicines as these plants have been used before. To add on to the upsurge is the existence of diseases like cancer, to which no cure exists and the emergence of new diseases. The increased cases of drug resistance which are being encountered with the use of conventional medicines have favorably contributed to the use of plant based remedies (Bandaranayake, 2006; Abdullah, 2011; Pan et al., 2014).

Plants have played an important role in drug discovery. For example vincristine and vinblastine which are used for the treatment of cancer are obtained from Catharanthus roseus. Quinine an antimalarial is obtained from Cinchona ledgeriana while digoxin is obtained from Digitalis lanata and is used as a cardiotonic (Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001).

There are various ways through which plants can be used as sources of drugs. They include: using the whole plant or part of it as an herbal remedy, isolating bioactive compounds for direct use as therapeutic agents such as morphine. Plants can also provide raw materials for partial synthesis of drugs with higher activity or lower toxicity or they can be used as molecular models to produce new drugs (Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001).

Despite the immense health benefits realized from use of plants as medicines, several challenges still exist such as insufficient scientific data to support use of some herbal remedies, lack of standardized formulation of herbal remedies and adulteration of herbal materials. According to the WHO, the assessment of the safety and efficacy of herbal remedies still remains a challenge (WHO, 2005; Ekor, 2014).

The use of medicinal plants is a practice among humans that has been passed down from one generation to another and plays a role in the development of human cultures and various traditional systems of medicine worldwide. According to the WHO, traditional medicine (TM) is defined as, ``the sum total of knowledge, skills and practices based on the theories, beliefs and experiences indigenous to different cultures that are used to maintain health, as well as to prevent, diagnose, improve or treat physical and mental illnesses” (WHO, 2013). Based on fossil records, the use of medicinal plants dates back to the middle Paleolithic age 60000 years ago. These plants had a variety of uses such as food seasoning, weapons and medicines (Hassan, 2012).

Medicinal plants can be described as “any plant which, in one or more of its organs, contains substances that can be used for therapeutic purposes or as precursors for the synthesis of useful drugs”. The therapeutically useful phytochemicals obtained from plants include the alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins and phenolic compounds (Sofowora et al., 2013; Choudhury et al., 2015). In most plants, the quantity and the composition of bioactive compounds present are influenced by genotype, extraction procedure and environmental conditions (Dai and Mumper, 2010; Vinha et al., 2011).

Plants are major part of most traditional medicine systems and a variety of conventional drugs have been obtained from plants following ethnobotanical leads from traditional remedies. Natural products and their derivatives represent over 50% of all drugs in clinical use worldwide according to Maridass and Britto (2008).

In spite of these challenges, medicinal plants have a promising future to act as preventive medicine against various diseases and also as complementary medicine alongside conventional treatments so as to increase efficacy or reduce side effects of conventional therapies (Hassan, 2012). This study focused on establishing some medicinal plants used in treatment of cancer and also screen for their antioxidant activity and haematological parameters.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Plant materials and Sample preparations

Leaves of Carica papaya were sourced from Baale farmland, Asese, Ifo Local Government in Ogun State. The leaves were washed, air dried, and crushed to a powder with an electric micronizer. The black seeds and Frankincense were collected from the local markets. After that the seeds were grinded into fine powder form to prepare the crude alcoholic extracts. Two hundred gram of each of powdered plant material was kept in 1000ml of alcohol in conical flask. The mouth of the conical flasks were covered with aluminum foil and kept in a room temperature for 48 hours for complete elucidation of active materials to dissolve in ethanol. Then, the extracts were filtered by using muslin cloth followed by filter paper. The solvent form the extracts were removed with water bath at temperature of 40o C. Finally, the residues were collected and used for the experiment.

2.2 Animal Procurement and Conditioning

Fifty adult female mice were sourced from a local breeder at Otta in Ogun-State. The mice weighed between 14 g-25 g. They were kept in well ventilated cages cushioned with saw dust in the animal house of the Department Cell biology and Genetics, Faculty of science, University of Lagos. They were acclimatized for one week before actual experiment and kept under standard conditions of room temperature and 12:12 hours of light and dark cycle respectively. The mice were fed with standardized pellet and tap water ad libitum. The mice cages were regularly cleaned and saw dust changed every day.

2.3 Acute toxicity (LD50) study

A separate experiment was carried out to study the acute toxicity of the extracts on mice. Normal healthy female mice were randomly divided into 5 groups which fed with the vehicle-treated “control” groups (distill water) and three concentration of extract-treated “experimental” groups, totally making up to 5 groups of 10 animals per each group. Extract (50, 100, 200, 400 and 1000 mg/kg body weight) were orally administered to different test groups and control groups were separated. All the mice were allowed access to food and water. Behaviour changes and mortality were observed and recorded over a period of 72 hours. The LD50 was estimated from the graph of percentage (%) mortality (converted to probit) against log-dose of the extract, probit 5 being 50% (Aniagu et al., 2005).

2.4 Experimental Design and Grouping

The animals were divided in five groups of ten mice each. All mice were fed by normal diet and water ad-libitum. Mice in group A served as positive control, group B served as negative control, groups C, D, and E were administered by the alcoholic extracts once daily for a period of 28 days, with single dose of Cisplatin, 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg Body weight, respectively. All mice except from the negative control group were injected into the mammary fat with 0.1 mL of NMU. The mice were weighed three times a week and kept under normal temperature during the period of study.

Table 2-1: shows treatment and duration of groups.

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

2.4.1 Animals Sacrifice

The final body weight of the mice was obtained at the end of the treatment using a digital weighing balance. They were then sacrificed by decapitation twenty four hours after the last treatment. Blood samples were collected and taken in EDTA containing tubes from animals of different groups for haematological measurements. Moreover, mammary tissues were fixed for antioxidant investigation.

2.5 Haematological Measurements

Complete blood count (CBC) includes hemoglobin content, red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC), was done by using Automated Hematology Analyzer, ready–made kits and platelets (PLT) counts.

2.5.1 Determination of packed cell volume (PCV)

The blood in the EDTA bottle was used for the PVC. The blood was collected into a capillary tube containing anticoagulant. Plug one end of the tube with soft wax to a depth of about 2mm by heating it carefully over a flame. Place the capillary tube in the numbered slots in heaematocrit centrifuge. After centrifuge at high speed (13000 rpm) for 5 minutes. The percentage of PVC is determined using haematocrits was calculated based on the following formula

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Where,

Li = is the height of RBC column

L2 = is the total length of the column (RBC + Plasma + buffy coat) in millimeter and expressed in per cent

2.5.2 Determination of total white blood cell counts

The counting of total white blood cells was done by using a diluting fluid (Turk’s fluid) in a ratio of 1:20 which haemolyses the RBCs leaving the WBCs to be counted. The leukocytes are the counted in a counting chamber under the microscope, and the number of cells in a litre of blood is calculated.

2.5.3 Determination of heamoglobin (Hb)

Sahli’s haemoglobinometer was employed for estimation of haemoglobin (Hb) content of the blood. Shahi's pipette was filled with mice blood exactly up to 20 mm[3] mark. The excess of blood was removed by blotting the tip with soft absorbent tissue. The blood was expelled into a calibrated (transmission) test tube containing 1 ml of 0.1 N HCl acid solutions and the pipette was rinsed several times in the acid solution. The sample was allowed to stand for 3 minutes. This method involves conversion of hemoglobin to acid haematin. The amount of haemoglobin in the blood sample was directly read in gram percent from the graduated haemoglohinometer tube.

Editorial note: figure 2.1 was removed due to copyright issues

Figure 2-1: Sahli’s haemoglobinometer

2.5.4. Other blood indices

Haematological indices such as Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV), Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentration (MCHC) and Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin (MCH) were calculated from the values of Hh content (%) and Ht (%) using the following formula

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

2.5.5 Differential blood counts (DC)

The differential counting was done as described in clinical haematology. The blood smears were made, air-dried, fixed in 100% methanol and stained with May and Grunwald stain and counted under oil immersion objective. Smears were examined for macrophages and abnormal RBC morphology (size, shape, colour, maturity, inclusions) and to determine the differential count of white blood cells (WBC). Total of 1000 blood cells of all types was counted from each smear and then percentage of each cell type was calculated.

2.5.5.1 May-Grünwald staining

- Since the May-Grünwald staining solution is made up in MeOH prior fixation is not necessary.
- Place slide on a flat surface and pipet 500 μl May-Grünwald Stain on the slide, leave for 3 min.
- Dilute Stain by adding 500 μl 10mM NaPi 7.0, leave for 7 min.
- Lift slide to drain the staining solution and place in a tray with H2O for 1 min.
- Dry slide vertically for 5 min.
- Mount coverslips using an aqueous-based mounting medium.

2.6. Biochemical Analyses

2.6.1. Sample preparation (tissue homogenate)

Breast tissues were collected from above groups and processed. Breast tissue was perfused with saline to remove any red blood cells and clots. Tissue was homogenized with the saline (0.9%) (1 g breast in 10 ml saline) with ice-cold PBS pH 8.0 using a homogenizer (Yamato LSC LH-21, Japan) and centrifuged at 12,000 rpm for 30 min at 4°C. Supernatant was collected and used for following biochemical estimations.

2.6.2. Protein estimation

Total protein contents were estimated by the modified method of Lowry et al. (1951). 0.5 ml of homogenized tissue is mixed with 1.5 ml of 0.2 M Tris buffer (pH-8.2) and 0.1 ml of 0.01 M DTNB and this mixture is brought to 10.0 ml with 7.9 ml of absolute methanol. The above reaction mixture is centrifuged at approximately 300 g at room temperature for 15 minutes. The absorbance of supernatant is read in a spectrophotometer against reagent blank (without sample) at 412 nm. Tissue protein is than calculated with reference to the standard graph and the results were expressed as milligram protein per gram of tissue weight.

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Where;

OD = Optical density at 412 nm

2.6.3. Estimation of glutathione

Glutathione (GSH) contents were measured as total non-protein sulfhydryl (NPSH) group using the method of Moron et al. (1979) with modifications. For the measurement of GSH content, 1.6 ml sodium phosphate buffer, 0.1 ml of 1 mM ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid disodium salt (EDTA, Amresco), 0.1 ml nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate reduced (NADPH) and 0.1 ml oxidized glutathione as well as PMS (0.1ml) in total volume of 2ml. The enzyme activity is measured at 340 nm and calculated as nanomole NADPH oxidized/min/mg of protein using extinction coefficient of 1.36 × 10[3] M/cm. The change in absorbance/min was determined and this value was converted to micromole GSH in comparison to a known standard.

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Where;

OD = Optical density at 340 nm

1.36 × 10[3] = Extinction coefficient

2.6.4. Estimation of Superoxide Dismutase Activity (SOD)

Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was assayed by the nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) method as described by Beauchamp et al. (1971). In this method, the reaction mixture consists of 0.5ml supernatant, 1ml of 50mM Sodium carbonate, 0.4ml of 25μM NBT, 0.2ml of 0.1mM EDTA. The reaction is then initiated by the addition of 0.4ml of 1mM hydroxylamine hydrochloride. The change in absorbance is recorded at 560 nm using a UV spectrophotometer. The control is simultaneously run without homogenate. Units of SOD activity are expressed as the amount of enzyme required to inhibit the reduction of NBT by 50 %. Specific activity of total SOD is expressed as units per milligram protein.

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

2.6.5 Estimation of catalase in breast

Catalase (CAT) activity was determined by catalytic reduction of hydrogen peroxide using a standard method described by Aebi (1984). The mixture consists of 1.95 ml of phosphate buffer (0.05 M, pH- 7), 1 ml of H2O2 (0.019 M) and 0.05 ml sample (10 % w/v) in a final volume of 3 ml. control cuvette contains all the components except substrate. Change in absorbance is then recorded at 240 nm and the results were expressed as micromole of product formed per minute per milligram protein of the tissue.

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

2.6.6 Estimation of Malondialdehyde Level in breast

MDA levels, an index of lipid peroxidation were measured by double heating method of Okhawa et al, (1979). The method is based on spectrophotometric measurement of the purple colour generated by the reaction of TBA with MDA. For this purpose, 2.5 mL of trichloroacetic acid solution (10%w/v) was added to 0.5mL homogenized tissue in each centrifuge tube; the tubes were then placed in a boiling water bath for 15mins. After cooling to room temperature, the tubes were centrifuged at 1000xg for 10mins and 2mL of each sample supernatant was transferred to attest tube containing 1 mL of TBA solution (0.67% w/v). Each tube was then placed in a boiling water bath for 15min. After cooling at room temperature, the absorbance was measured at 532 nm by using spectrophotometer. The concentration of MDA was calculated based on absorbance coefficient of the MDA complex (e= 1.56x10[5] cmM-[1]).

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Where;

OD = Optical density at 532 nm

1.56×10[5] = Extinction coefficient

2.7 Statistical analysis

Experimental results are expressed as mean ± standard error of the mean (mean±S.E.M). The data were analysed by ANOVA (p<0.05) and means separated by Duncan’s multiple range tests (by SPSS version 21 software). Tabulation and graphics of data were done using Microsoft Excel XP.

3 Result

3.1 Morphological results

Table 1 demonstrates the changes in the body weight of mice after induction of NMU and during the periods of treatment with extracts. There was a significant difference at (p<0.05) between the treatment groups and normal control group, which signifies the extracts increases the weight of the animals. Figure 3-1 illustrates that the weight between all Alcoholic extracts-treated groups and controls were significantly different (P > 0.05).

Table 3-1. Mean initial and final body weight of adult female mice.

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

In Table 3-1. Results expressed as mean ± S.E.M of the mean body weight of female mice during the experiment in grams

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Figure 3-1: Change in the body weight mice treated with dose of alcoholic extracts

3.1.1. Organ to body weight ratio

The organ to body weight ratios of Alcoholic extracts -treated groups and controls are illustrated in Table 3-2. The treatment groups (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg of extracts) and the positive control showed significant increase of lung, heart and liver to body weight ratio (P < 0.05) compared to the negative control. The liver to body weight ratio of the 400 mg/kg Alcoholic extracts-treated group decreased significantly (P < 0.05) compared to the positive control.

Table 3-2. Mean organs to body weight ratio of adult mice weight

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

In Table 2, results expressed as Mean ± Standard Error Mean (S.E.M) of the mean organs to body weight of the mice during the experiment in grams. Values were significantly different (p< 0.05).

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Figure 3-2. Organ to body weight ratio mice treated with extract. Mean were significantly different (P < 0.05).

3.2 Antioxidant biomarkers result

Table 3 shows results obtained from the evaluation of selected antioxidants biomarkers of breast tissues of experimental mice. There is no significant difference (P>0.05) in the value obtained from catalase activity, superoxide dismutase and total protein when compare to the control groups, however, glutathione and malondialdehyde showed significant difference p<0.05 at plant concentration of 100mg/kg, 200mg/kg and 400mg/kg respectively. There is also a significant difference in the superoxide dismutase values of the cisplatin group and control group. The levels in the antioxidant parameters indicating biomarkers of mammary gland are illustrated in Figure 3.

Table 3-3: Comparison of selected antioxidants biomarker of mammary gland of experimental mice

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Values are means of 3 replicates ± Standard Error of the Mean (S.E.M) and Values carrying superscript (*) Non-significant between control groups and animal treated with dose of (100mg/Kg, 200mg/Kg and 400mg/Kg) of alcoholic extract

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Figure 3-3: Antioxidant profile in control and experimental female mice

3.3 Effect of plants extract on the Haematological parameters

Studying the haematological parameters revealed that there is a significant (p≤0.05) decrease in white blood counts (WBCs), red blood counts (RBCs), Platelets count (PLC) and counts in addition to haemoglobin count after administration of 100 mg/Kg, 200 mg/Kg and 400 mg/Kg body weight, respectively, while the dose of 100 mg/Kg body weight induced changes when compare with normal control group. Moreover, none of these doses cause any change in the platelet count as shown in Table 4. Comparing the values of the treated groups were significantly effective when compared with 100mg/Kg treated one (p<0.05) for RBCs. 200 mg/Kg treated group showed appreciated Hb content when compare with 100mg/Kg and 400 mg/Kg treated ones (Figure 4).

The mean PCV in control group was 35.00±0.00% while those of 100mg/kg, 200mg/kg and 400mg/kg dose groups were 34.5±0.50%, 33.5±2.0% and 32.00±1.00% respectively. The mean PCV of the 100mg/kg and 400mg/kg dose group were significantly different from that of control group (P<0.05) while the medium dose group was not significantly different. Also, the mean Hb (Haemoglobin) concentration in 100 mg/kg (2.0±0.30g/dl) and 400 mg/kg dose (5.65±0.15g/dl) groups were statistically significant compared with control group (12.25±0.15g/dl) while that of 200 mg/kg dose group (12.05±0.10g/dl) did not differ from control values. The mean platelet count of 100 mg/kg (223.00±7.00 x 10[3] cells/mm[3]), 200 mg/kg (605±11.00 x 10[3] cells/mm[3]) and 400 mg/kg dose (399±2.50 x 10[3] cells/mm[3]) groups were significantly different compared with that of control group (920.00±247 x 10[3] cells/mm[3]). The mean values of MCV for the control, 100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg dose groups were 48.00±3.00, 49.50±1.50, 50.50±1.50 and 47.00±2.001fL respectively. These values were not significantly different from each other. The mean values of MCH were also not significantly different among the groups when compared with the control group (18.50±0.50pg). Also, the 100 mg/kg (38.90±1.00g/dl), 200 mg/kg (33.00±1.00g/dl) and 400 mg/kg (39.00±1.50g/dl) dose groups of MCHC were significant different compared with the control group (39.50±1.00g/dl, P>0.05).

Table 3-4: Effect of oral administration of daily doses of Alcoholic extract on haematological parameters of normal female mice.

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Result expressed as Mean ± SEM. ANOVA (p value) represents the difference between all groups. (*) Non significant between control groups and animal treated with dose of (100mg/Kg, 200mg/Kg and 400mg/Kg) of alcoholic extract.

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Figure 3-4: Effect of plants extract on the Haematological parameters

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Figure 3-5: Effect of plants extract on the RBCs, WBCs and Hemoglobin content

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Figure 3-6: Effect of Alcoholic extracts oral treatment on alteration of Platelets count

4. Discussion

During this study, the routine weight gained over the period of exposure may be due to the presence of some phytochemicals in the extract. Tannins have been previously implicated in increasing body mass (Marcus et al., 2003). Decreased GSH content observed in this study indicated impairment in cell’s defense against ROS and has been known to cause cellular injury (Omoreigie and Osagie, 2011) and generally reflects the inability of a tissue to scavenge excess superoxide anions leading to oxidative stress (Omoreigie and Osagie, 2007; Shafaquat et al., 2017). MDA levels decreased in a dose dependent manner in the breast tissue. A significant MDA decrease was observed due to lipid peroxidation which is a direct indicator that cell membrane damage has occurred in the tissue (Jonas et al., 2000; AshokKumar, 2004). Increased CAT observed in this study may indicate enhanced triherbal toleration by that particular tissue (Bahrami et al., 2015). Rise in SOD activities observed may indicate presence of active enzyme involvement in neutralizing the effect of free radicals (Deger et al., 2008). Elevated levels of protein content were noticed in all treated mice which may imply that the cell is capable of mitigating effect of free radical and peroxide processes which could ultimately results in modulating the host antioxidant status (Siwela et al., 2013).

The haematological studies of triherbal preparation showed severe anaemia, which may imply inhibition of globin synthesis, depression of erythropoiesis, or a decreased level of folic acid (Antai et al., 2009; Atasaya et al., 2009; Yadav et al., 2010). Extract administration might have caused destruction of erythrocytes directly or the decreased RBC count may be due to the effect of extract on erythropoietic tissue (Antai et al., 2009). The manifestation of hypochromic anaemia is due to reduction in the number of red blood cells or haemoglobin or impaired production of erythrocytes (Antai et al., 2009; Chia et al., 2009). Combine extract might be responsible for the decreased RBCs and haemoglobin levels due to increased level of pro-inflammatory cytokines that induced iron retention by reticulo-endothelial system, gastrointestinal tract and liver, thereby exerting inhibitory effect on erythroid precursors (Harnafi and Amrani, 2007). The significant decrease in WBC observed in this study may be alluded to suppression of the haematopoetic system, which consequently reduces the production of WBCs (Ekiz et al., 2005), and bio concentration of the toxicant in the kidney and liver (Amusa et al., 2003). Also, decreased level of white blood cell counts were observed mainly in mice exposed to extract due to the fact that triherbal formula may induce leucopenia and thrombocytopenia in cases of severe liver dysfunction (George, 2000) and as a result of decreased defence mechanism against probable attack of toxic molecules during extract toxicosis (Kori-Siakpere, 2011). Decreased in haematocrit observed in this study can be attributed to the reduction in RBC count caused by either destruction or reduction in size (Schneider et al, 2003).

Variation in MCV, MCH, and MCHC values observed in this study may imply that the macrocytic anaemia which can lead to very slow production of erythroblasts in bone marrow (Ghaffar et al., 2014) which make them grow over in size with shape and have fragile membranes called megaloblast which is characteristic of pernicious anaemia which can lead to megaloblast anaemia (Hussain et al., 2014). The reduction in Hb, RBC, WBC, MCV, MCH, and MCHC indicated that there is slow development of blood in the haemopoitic cells (Sharaf et al., 2010) due to the presence of saponin in the tri-herbal preparation which has been reported to as reported to suppress haematopoiesis of all blood cells (Akinnuga et al., 2011).

In conclusion, the tri-herbal formulations at doses evaluated has potential to induce haematotoxicity and indiscriminate consumption of high concentrations should be discouraged. Although these medicinal plants may possess profound therapeutic advantages at very low doses. Further research should be carried out in lower doses to ascertain the safety.

References

Abdullahi, A. A. (2011). Trends and challenges of traditional medicine in Africa. African Journal of Traditional and Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 8: 115–123.

Adebolu, T. T. and Oladimeji, S. A. (2005). Antimicrobial activity of leaf extracts of Ocimum gratissimum on selected diarrhoea causing bacteria in Southwestern Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology 4 (7): 682–684.

Adekunle, A. A. and Ikumapayi, A. M. (2006). Antifungal property and phytochemical screening of the crude extracts of Funtumia elastica and Mallotus oppositifolius. West Indian Medical Journal 55 (4): 219 – 223.

Aebi, H. (1984). Catalase in vitro. Methods Enzymology 105:121-126.

Agnaniet, H., Makani, T., Akagah, A., Menut C. and J. M. Bessiere (2005). Volatile constituents and antioxidant activity of essential oils from Lippia multiflora Mold growing in Gabon. Flavour Fragrance Journal 20: 34–38.

Ahmad, B., Naeem A. K. and Ghufran, A. (2005). Innamudin Pharmacological Investigation of Cassia sophera, Linn. Var. purpurea, Roxb. Medical Journal of Islamic World Academy of Sciences 15 (3): 105–109.

Ahmed, W.A., Hassan, S. A., Galeb, F. M., El-Taweel, M. A. and Abu-Bedair, F. A. (2008). The in vitro promising therapeutic activity of thymoquinone on hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cell line. Global Veterinaria 2 (5): 233–241.

Akihisa, T., Tabata, K., Banno, N., Tokuda, H., Nishimura, R., Nakamura, Y., Kimura, Y., Yasukawa, K. and Suzuki, T. (2006). Cancer chemopreventive effects and cytotoxic activities of the triterpene acids from the resin of Boswellia carteri. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 29:1976-1979.

Akinmoladun, A. C., Ibukun, E. O., Afor, E., Obuotor, E. M. and Farombi, E. O. (2007). Phytochemical constituent and antioxidant activity of extract from the leaves of Ocimum gratissimum. Scientific Research and Essays 2 (5):163–166.

Akinnuga, A. M., Bamidele, O., Ekechi, P. and Adeniyi OS (2011). Effects of an Ethanolic Leaf Extract of Gongronema latifolium on Haematological Some Parameters in Rats. Africa Journal of Biomedical Research 14: 153 -156

Akpan, E. J. and Udoh, A. P. (2004). Effect of the leaves of (Fleurya aestuans) on the food quality of the corm of cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L) (Schott). Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences 10 (2): 287–290.

Al-Ali, A. A., Alkhawajah, A., Randhawa, M. and Shaikh, N. A. (2008). Oral and intraperitoneal LD50 of thymoquinone, an active peinciple of Nigella sativa, in mice and rats. Journal of Ayub Medical Colloquium 20 (2): 25–27.

Al-Bukhari, M. I. (1976). In: Sahi Al-Bukhari, The Collection of Authentic Sayings of Prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him), Division 71 on Medicine, 2nd ed. Hilal Yayinlari, Ankara, Turkey.

Al-Jishi, S. A. (2000). A study of Nigella sativa on blood hemostatic functions. M.Sc. Thesis, King Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia.

Alves, C. Q., David, J. M., David, J. P., Bahia, M. V. and Aguiar, R. M. (2010). Methods for determination of in vitro antioxidant activity for extracts and organic compounds. Química Nova 33 (10), 2202-2210.

Amusa, N. A., Ashaye, O. A., and Oladapo, M. O. (2003). Biodeterioration of the African Star apple (Chrysophyllum albidum) in storage and the effect on its food value. Afriica Journal. Of Biotechnol ogy 2: 56 - 57.

Antai A.B., Ofem, O.E., Ikpi, D. E., Ukafia, S. and Agiang, E.A. (2009). Phytochemistry and some haematological changes following oral administration of ethanolic root extract of Physiological Sciences 24 (1), 79-83

Anthoni, C., Laukoetter, M. G., Rijcken, E., Vowinkel, T., Mennigen, R., Muller, S., Senninger, N. Russell, J., Jauch, J. and Bergmann, J. (2006). Mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory actions of boswellic acid derivatives in experimental colitis. America Journal of Physiology 290:1131-1137.

Antolovich, M., Prenzler, P., Patsalides, E., McDonald, S. and Robards, K. (2002). Methods for Testing Antioxidant Activity. The analyst 127: 183-198.

Anwar, F., Latif, S., Ashraf, M. and Gilani, A. H. (2007). Moringa oleifera: a food plant with multiple medicinal uses. Phytotherapy Research 21 (1): 17–25.

Aprioku, J. S., and Obianime, A. W. (2008). Antioxidant activity of the aqueous crude extract of Ocimum gratissimum LINN. Leaf on basal and cadmium-induced serum levels of phosphatases in male guinea-pigs. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management 12 (4): 33–39.

AshokKumar, T. (2004). Antioxidants: New-generation therapeutic base for treatment of polygenic disorders. Current science 86: 496-504

Atasayar, S., Gurer-Orhan, H., Gurel, B. and Ozgunes, H. (2009). Preventive effect of aminiguanidine compared to Vitamin C and vitamin Eon cisplatin –induced nephrotoxicity in rats. Experimental Toxicology and Pathology 61: 23-34

Badary, O. A. and Gamal El-din, A. M. (2001). Inhibitory effect of thymoquinone against 20-methylchlolanthrene-induced fibrosarcoma tumorigenesis. Cancer Detection Preview 25 (4): 362–368.

Bahrami, S., Jalali, M. H. and Jafari, A. (2015). Evaluation of hepatic antioxidant changes in ovine discrocoliosis. Journal of Parasitic Diseases 39: 766-769.

Bandaranayake, W. M. (2006). Qualitycontrol, screening,toxicity, and regulation of herbal Drugs in Modern Phytomedicine. Turning Medicinal Plants into Drugs 6: 25–57.

Bassole, I. H. N., Nebie, R., Savadogo, A., Ouattara, C. T., Barro, N. and Traore, S. A. (2005). Composition and antimicrobial activities of the leaf and flower essential oils of Lippia chevalieri and Ocimum canum from Burkina Faso. African Journal of Biotechnology 4 (10): 56–64.

Beauchamp, C. and Fridovich, I. (1971) Superoxide dismutase: Improved assays and an assay applicable to acrylamide gels. Analytical Biochemistry 44:276-287.

Bhatkar, N. V. (2011). Chromium (III) induced haematological alterations in Indian common carp, Labeo rohita (Ham.). Journal and Application of Natural Science 3: 258-263.

Chevrier, M. R., Ryan, A. E., Lee, D.Y., Zhongze, M., Wu-Yan. Z. and Via, C. S. (2005). Boswellia carterii extract inhibits TH1 cytokines and promotes TH2 cytokines in vitro. Clinical Diagnosis Laboratory Immunology 12:575-580.

Chia. S., Nagurney, J. T., Brown, D. F., Raffel, O. C., Bamberg, F., Senatore, F., Wackers, F. J. and Jang, I. K. (2009). Association of leucocyte and neutrophil counts with infarct size, left ventricular function and outcome after percutaneous coronary intervention for ST- elevation myocardial infarction. America Journal of Cardiology 103: 333–337.

Chou, F., Lin, H., Tseng, H., Wang, C., Lin, J. and Loa, C. (2008). Hepatoprotective effects of Solanum nigrum Linn extract against CCl4 induced oxidative damage in rats. Chemico-Biological Interactions 171: 283–293.

Choudhury, S., Sharan, L., and Sinha, M. P. (2015). Screening of Some Commonly Used Medicinal Plants against Enteric Human Pathogen Vibrio cholera. European Journal of Medical Physics 9 (3): 1–6.

Dai, J. and Mumper, R.J. (2010). Plant phenolics: Extraction, analysis, and their antioxidant and anticancer properties . Molecules 15: 7313-7352.

Deger, S., Deger, Y., Ertekin, A., Gul, k. and Ozdal, N. (2008). Determination of the statusof lipid perioxidation and antioxidant in Cattle infected with Dictyocaulus viviparous. Turkish Parasitology 32: 234-237

Dhellot, J. R., Matouba, E., Maloumbi, M. G., Nzikou, J. M., Dzondo, M. G., Linder, M., Parmentier, M., and Desobry, S. (2006). Extraction and nutritional properties of Solanum nigrum L seed oil. African Journal of Biotechnology. 5 (10): 987–991.

Dongo, E., Hussain, H., Miemanang, R. S., Tazoo, D., Schulz, B., and Krohn, K. (2009). Chemical constituents of Klainedoxa gabonensis and Paullinia pinnata. Records of Natural Products 3: 165–169.

Ekiz, C., Agaoglu, L., Karakas, Z., Gurel, N. and Yelcin, I. (2005). The effect of iron deficiency anemia on the function of immune system. Hematological Journal 5: 579–583.

Ekor, M. (2014). The growing use of herbal medicines: issues relating to adverse reactions and challenges in monitoring safety . Frontiers in Pharmacology 2: 1–10.

El-Najjar, N., Chatila, H., Moukadem, H., Vuorela, M., Ocker, M., Gandesiri, R., Schneider, S. and Gali-Muhtasib, H. (2010). Reactive oxygen species mediate thymoquinone-induced apoptosis and activate ERK and JNK signaling. Apoptosis 15 (2): 183–195.

Fabricant, D. S. and Farnsworth, N. R. (2001). The Value of Plants Used in Traditional Medicine for Drug Discovery. Environmental Health Perspectives. 109: 69–75.

Fatima, A., Singh, P. P., Agarwal, P. I. and Raghuveer, A. S. (2013). Treatment of various diseases by Carissa spinarum l. - A promising shrub. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research 4 (7): 2489-2495.

Fennell, C.W. Light, M.E. Sparg, S.G. Stafford, G. I. and van Staden, J. (2004). Assessing African medicinal plants for efficacy and safety: agricultural and storage practices. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 95: 113-121

Flavin D. F. (2007). A lipoxygenase inhibitor in breast cancer brain metastases. Journal of Neurooncology 82:91-93.

George, J. N. (2000). Platelets. Lancet 355: 1531 – 1539

Ghaffar, A. S., Ashraf, R., Hussain, T., Hussain, M., Shafique, S. and Aslam, S. (2014). Clinicohematological disparities induced by triazophos (organophosphate) in Japanese quail. Pakistan Veterinary Journal 34: 257- 259.

Glew, R. S., Amoako-Atta, B., Ankar-Brewoo, G., Presley, J., Lu-Te, C., Millson, M., Smith, B. R., and Glew, R. H. (2009). "Non-cultivated plant foods in West Africa: Nutritional analysis of the leaves of three indigenous leafy vegetables in Ghana. Food 3 1: 39–42.

Hamid, O., Aiyelaagbe, L., Usman, O. and Lawal, A. (2010). Antioxidants: Its medicinal and pharmacological Applications. African Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry 4 (8):142-151.

Hassan, R., Acta, A. and Abdul, B. (2012). A Medicinal Plants (Importance and Uses), Pharmaceutica Analytica 3 (10): 41-52.

Hassan, S. A. Ahmed, W.A. Galeb, F.M. El-Taweel, M.A. and Abu-Bedair, F.A. (2008). In vitro challenge using thymoquinone on hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cell line. Iran Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 7 (4): 283–290.

Heo, K. S., Lee, S. J., Ko, J. H., Lim, K. and Lim, K. T. (2004). Glycoprotein isolated from Solanum nigrum L. inhibits the DNA-binding activities of NF-êB and AP-1, and increases the production of nitric oxide in TPA-stimulated MCF-7 cells. Journal of Toxicology in vitro 18 (6): 755–763.

Hostanska, K., Daum, G. and Saller, R. (2002). Cytostatic and apoptosis-inducing activity of boswellic acids toward malignant cell lines in vitro. Anticancer Research 22:2853-2862.

Huang, H. C., Syu, K.Y., and Lin, J. K. (2010). Chemical composition of Solanum nigrum Linn extract and induction of autophagy by leaf water extract and its major flavonoids in AU565 breast cancer cells. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 58 (15): 8699–8708.

Huang, M. T., Badmaev, V., Ding, Y., Liu, Y., Xie, J. G. and Ho, C. T. (2000). Anti-tumor and anti-carcinogenic activities of triterpenoid, β-boswellic acid. BioFactors 13:225-230.

Hussain, R., Khan, F., Mahmood, S., Rehan, S. and Ali, F. (2014). Clinicohematological and tissue changes induced by butachlor in male Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica). Pest Biochemistry and Physiology 109: 58- 63.

Isnard Bagnis, C., Deray, G., Baumelou, A., Le Quintrec, M. and Vanherweghem, J. L. (2004). Herbs and the kidney. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 44: 1-11.

Ivanova, D., Gerova, D., Chervenkov, T. and Yankova, T. (2005). Polyphenols and antioxidant capacity of Bulgarian medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 97: 145-150.

Jana, S. and Shekhawat, G. (2010). Phytochemical analysis and antibacterial screening of in vivo and in vitro extracts of Indian medicinal herb: Anethum graveolens. Research Journal of Medicinal Plant 4: 206-212.

Jansen, P. C. M. (2008) Solanum nigrum L. Record from Protabase. Schmelzer, G. H., Gurib-Fakim, A. (Eds) PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa/Ressources végétales de l’Afrique tropicale), Wageningen, Netherlands.

Jimoh, F. O., Sofidiya, M. O. and Afolayan, A. J. (2007). Antioxidant properties of the methanol extracts from the leaves of Paullinia pinnata. Journal of Medicinal Food 10 (4): 707–711.

Jonas, C.R., Puckett, A.B., Jones, D.P., Griffith, D.P., Szeszycki, E.E., Bergman, G.F., Furr, C.E., Tyre, C., Carlson, J.L., Galloway, J.R., Blumberg, J.B. and Ziegler, T.R. (2000) Plasma antioxidant status after high-dose chemotherapy a randomized trial of parenteral nutrition in bone marrow transplantation patients. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 72: 181-189.

Kipkore, W., Wanjohi, B., Rono, H., and Kigen, G. (2014). A study of the medicinal plants used by the Marakwet Community in Kenya. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 10 (1): 1–22.

Kori-Siakpere O. (2011). Alterations in some haematological parameters of the African Snakehead: Parachanna africans exposed to cadmium . Notulae Science and Biology 3: 29-34.

Kukuia, K. K. E., Mante, P. K., Woode, E., Elvis O. Ameyaw, E. O. and Adongo, D. W. (2014). Antidepressant effects of Mallotus oppositifolius in acute murine models. International Scholarly Research Notices: Pharmacology, Article ID 324063, http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/324063.

Langmead, L. and Rampton, D. S. (2006) Review article: complementary and alternative therapies for inflammatory bowel disease. Aliment Pharmacology and Treatment 23:341-349.

Lasisi, A. A., Ayinde, B. W., Adeleye, A. O., Onocha, P. A., Oladosu, I. A. and Idowu, P.A. (2015). New triterpene isovanniloyl and antibacterial activity of constituents from the roots of Paullinia pinnata Linn (Sapindaceae). Journal of Saudi Chemical Society 1 9: 117–122.

Liu and Xiaozhuo Chen (2005). Glucose Transport and Inhibit Adipocyte differentiation in 373 – L1 Cell. Journal of Nutrition 135 (2):165 -171.

Lowry, O. H., Rosebrough, N. J. and Farr, A. L. (1951). Randall RJ. Protein measurement with the Folin phenol reagent. Journal of Biology and Chemistry 93:265-275.

Mabrouk, G. M., Moselhy, S. S., Zohny, S. F., Ali, E. M., Helal, T. E., Amin, A. A. and Khalifa A. A. (2002). Inhibition of methylnitrosourea (MNU) induced oxidative stress and carcinogenesis by orally administered honey and Nigella sativa in Sprague Dawley rats. Journal Experimental Clinical Cancer Research 21 (3): 341–346.

Maloney, G. A. (1997). Gold, frankincense, and myrrh: an introduction to Eastern Christian spirituality. New York: Crossroads Publishers & Co.

Mandal, V., Mohan, Y. and Hemalatha, S (2007). Microwave assisted extraction an innovative and promising extraction tool for medicinal plant research. Pharmacognosy Reviews 1: 7-18.

Mansour, M. A., Ginwai, O. T., El-Hadiya, T., El-Khatib, A. S., Al-Shabanah, O. A. and Al-Sawaf, H. A. (2001). Effects of volatile oil constituents of Nigella sativa on carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity in mice: evidence for antioxidant effects of thymoquinone. Research Community Molecular Pathology and Pharmacology 110: 239–251.

Marcus, C., Karin, L., Jain, G., Matthias, L. D., Jorns, F., Tilman, G. and Wurgen, S. (2003). Captive roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) select for low amount of tannic acid but not quebracho: flunctuation of preference and potential benefit. Biochemistry and Physiology Part B: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 136 (2): 369 -382.

Maridass, M. and Britto, A. J. (2008). Origins of Plant Derived Medicines. Ethnobotanical Leaflets 12: 373-387.

Mello, V. J. Gomes, M. T. Lemos, F. O. Delfino, J. L. Andrade, S. P. Lopes, M. T. and Salas C. E. (2008). The gastric ulcer protective and healing role of cysteine proteinases from Carica candamarcensis. Phytomedicine 15: 237–244

Morimitsu, Y., Hayashi, K., Nakagawa, Y., Fujii, H., Horio, F., Uchida, K. and Osawa, T. (2000). Antiplatelet and anticancer isothiocyanates in Japanese domestic horseradish, wasabi. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development 116: 125 –134.

Moron, M. S., Depierre, J. W. and Mannervik, B. (1979). Levels of glutathione, glutathione reductase and glutathione S-transferase activities in rat lung and liver. Biochemical and Biophysics Acta 582:67-78.

Munoz, V. Sauvain, M. Bourdy, G. Callapa, J. Rojas, I. Vargas, L. Tae, A. and Deharo, E. (2000). The search for natural bioactive compounds through a multidisciplinary approach in Bolivia. Part II. Antimalarial activity of some plants used by Mosetene indians. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 69:139–155

Ngassoum, M. B., Ousmaila, H., Ngamo, L. T., Maponmetsem, P. M., Jirovetz, L. and Buchbauer, G. (2004). Aroma compounds of essential oils of two varieties of the spice plant Ocimum canum Sims from northern Cameroon. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 17 (2): 197–204.

Norwood, A. A., Tucci, M. and Benghuzzi, H. (2007). A comparison of 5-fluorouracil and natural chemotherapeutic agents, EGCG and thymoquinone, delivered by sustained drug delivery on colon cancer cells. Biomedical Science Instrument 43: 272–277.

Norwood, A.A., M. Tan, M. May, M. Tucci and H. Benghuzzi. (2006). Comparison of potential chemotherapeutic agents, 5-fluorouracil, green tea and thymoquinone on colon cancer cells. Biomedical Science Instrument 42: 350–356.

Nyarko, A. K., Asare-Anane, H., Ofosuhene, M. and Addy, M. E. (2002). Extract of Ocimum canum lowers blood glucose and facilitates insulin release by isolated pancreatic β-islet cells. Phytomedicine 9 (4): 346–351.

Oboh, G. (2008). Antioxidative Potential of Ocimum gratissimum and Ocimum canum leaf polyphenols and protective effects on some pro-oxidants induced lipid peroxidation in rat brain: An in vitro study. American Journal of Food Technology 3 (5): 325–334.

Oboh, G., Raddatz, H., and Henle, T. (2009). Characterization of the antioxidant properties of hydrophilic and lipophilic extracts of Jute (Corchorus olitorius) leaf. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 60 (2): 124–134.

Odukoya, O. A., Ilori, O. O., Sofidiya, M. O., Aniunoh, O. A., Lawal, B. M. and Tade, I. O. (2005). Antioxidant activity of Nigerian dietary spices. Elective Journal of Environmental and Agricultural Food Chemistry 4: 1086–1093.

Okhawa, H., Ohishi, N. and Yagi, K. (1979) Assay of lipid peroxides in animal tissues by thiobarbituraic acid reaction. Analytical Biochemistry 95:351-358.

Omoregie, E. S. and Osagie, A. U. (2007). Phytochemical Screening and anti-anaemia effect of Jatropha tanjoresis leaf in protein malnourished rats. Plant Achieve 7: 509-516

Omoregie, E. S. and Osagie, A. U. (2011). Effect of Jatropha tanjoresis leaves supplement on activities of some antioxidant enzymes, vitamins and lipid peroxidation in rat. Journal of Food Biochemistry 35 (2): 409-424.

Pan, S. Y., Gerhard, L., Si-Hua, G. and Shu, F. Z. (2014). Historical Perspective of Traditional Indigenous Medical Practices: The Current Renaissance and Conservation of Herbal Resources. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2014/525340

Park, Y. S. Lee, J. H. Bondar, J. Harwalkar, J. A. Safayhi, H. and Golubic, M. (2002). Cytotoxic action of acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid (AKBA) on meningioma cells. Plantae Medical 68:397-401.

Ramachandran, C., Peter, K. V. and Gopalakrishnan, P. K. (1980). Drumstick (Moringa oleifera): A multipurpose Indian vegetable. Economic Botany 34 (3): 276–283.

Ramya P. (2012). Studies on antimicrobial, antioxidant and antidiabeticproperties of selected herbs. Thesis submitted to the University of Mysore for the award of doctor of philosophy in microbiology. Department of studies in Microbiology university of mysore, manasagangotri mysore-570 006, india.

Randhawa, M. A. and Alghamdi, M. S. (2002). A review of the pharmaco-therapeutic effects of Nigella sativa. Pakistan Journal Medical Research 41 (2): 77–83.

Randhawa, M. A. and Alghamdi, M. S. (2011).Anticancer Activity of Nigella sativa (Black Seed) — A Review . American Journal of Chinese Medicine 39 (6): 1075–1091

Schneider, C. R., Sheidt, K. and Brietmaier, E. (2003). Four new pregnant glycosides from Gongronema latifolium (Asclepidaceous). Journal Parkische Chem Chenisker-Zutung 353: 532-536

Seigler, D. S. Pauli, G. F. Nahrstedt, A. and Leen, R. (2002). Cyanogenic allosides and glucosides from Passiflora edulis and Carica papaya. Phytochemistry 60:873–882.

Sei-Jung, L., Kye-Taek, L. (2006). Apoptosis induced by glycoprotein (150-kDa) isolated from Solanum nigrum L. is not related to intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in HCT-116 cells. Journal of Cancer Chemotherapy and Pharmacology 57 (4): 507–516.

Serafini, M. and Del Rio, D. (2004) Understanding the association between dietary antioxidants, redox status and disease: Is the total antioxidant capacity the right tool? Redox Report 9: 145-152.

Shafaquat, N., Syed, T. and Showkat, A. G. (2017). Glutathione-S-transferase, Superoxide Dismutase (GST, SOD) levels, Protein content and lipid Perioxidation in Schizothorax plagiostomus under the infection of pomphorhynchus in Nallah Sukhnag of Kashmir Valley. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 20: 442-446.

Sharaf, S., AKhan, M. Z., Khan, F., Aslam, M. K., Saleemi and Mahmood, F. (2010). Clinico-hematological and micronuclear changes induced by cypermethrin in broiler chicks: their attenuation with vitamin E and selenium. Experimental Toxicology and Pathology 62: 333-341.

Siwela, A. H., Motsi, L. R. and Dube, S. (2013). Alternation of some hepatic enzyme activities by gastrointestinal helminth parasite in domesticated ostrishes. Advance in Bioresearch 4: 145-150.

Sofowora, A., Ogunbodede, E., Onayade, A. (2013). The role and place of medicinal plants in the strategies for disease. African Journals Online 10: 210–229.

Swamy, S. M. and Tan, B. K. (2000). Cytotoxic and immunopotenciating effects of ethanolic extract of Nigella sativa L. seed. 2000. Journal Ethnopharmacology 70 (1): 1–7.

Telefo, P. B., Lienou, L. L., Yemele, M. D., Lemfack, M. C., Mouokeu, C., Goka, C. S. and Moundipa, F. P. (2011). Ethnopharmacological survey of plants used for the treatment of female infertility in Baham, Cameroon. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 136 (1): 178–187.

Vinha, A. F., Soares, M. O., Castro, A., Santos, A. and Machado, M. (2011). Phytochemical Characterization and Radical Scavenging Activity of Aqueous Extracts of Medicinal Plants from Portugal 2: 335–347.

Wannang, N. N, Anuka, J. A, Kwanashie H. O and Bichi L. A. (2004). Effects of Solanum nigrum Linn aqueous extracts on the behavioral activities in chicks. Biological and Environmental Sciences Journal for the Tropics 1 (1): 139–142.

Weckesser, S. Engel, K. Simon-Haarhaus, B. Wittmer, A. Pelz, K. and Schempp. C. M. (2007). Screening of plant extracts for antimicrobial activity against bacteria and yeasts with dermatological relevance. Phytomedicine 14:508-516.

Willcox J. K., Ash S.L., Catignani G.L. (2004). Antioxidants and prevention of chronic disease. Critical Review Food Science and Nutrition 44 (4): 275-295.

World Health Organisation (2013). The WHO Traditional Medicine Strategy 2014–2023

World Health Organization (2005). National policy on traditional medicine and regulation of herbal medicines. Report of a WHO global survey.

Yadav, Y. C., Srivastav, D. N. and Saini T. (2010). Nephroprotective and curative activity of lepidium stivum L. seeds in albino rat using cisplatin-induced acute renal failure. Journal of Pharmaceutical chemistry 2: 57-64.

Zaidi, K. S., Md. Hoda, N., Tabrez, S., Ansari, S. A., Jafri, M. A., Khan, M. S. and Banu, N. (2014). “Protective effect of Solanum nigrum leaves extract on immobilization stress induced changes in rat’s brain,” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Article ID 912450, 7 doi:10.1155/2014/912450

Zamble, A., Carpentier, M., Kandoussi, A., Sahpaz, S., Petrault, O., Ouk, T., and Martin-Nizard, F. (2006). Paullinia pinnata extracts rich in polyphenols promote vascular relaxation via endothelium-dependent mechanisms. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 47 (4): 599–608.

[...]

• Universidad: University of Lagos (University of Lagos)
• Curso: Cell Biology and Genetics
• Calificación: 5.0
• Autor: Kehinde Sowunmi (Autor)
• Año de publicación: 2019
• Páginas: 30
• No. de catálogo: V510127
• ISBN (Ebook): 9783346087782
• ISBN (Libro): 9783346087799
• Idioma: Inglés
• Etiqueta: antioxidant, haemotological, properties, nigella, carica, boswellia, experiment