This study proposes to better equip mental health professionals when working with South Asian Indian (SAI) women exposed to domestic violence (DV). It does so by shedding light on many traditions and cultural norms that keep women subordinate to men, and cements patriarchy which this study believes is the root and cause of DV. With the SAI community growing rapidly in the USA, this study examines how therapists can best approach the treatment of DV within this specific community as well as DV victims in the general population.
Domestic violence affects people of all race, culture, gender, religion, socioeconomic status, and educational levels. In addition, it can happen to heterosexual or same-sex intimate partners who are married, cohabitating, or dating. According to various findings, DV is the single major cause of injury to women, exceeding rapes, muggings, and auto accidents combined.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Signature Page
Dedication
Acknowledgment
Abstract
CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the Project
Statement of Significance
Terminology
CHAPTER II - Literature Review
DefinitionofDomestic Violence
History of Domestic Violence
Prevalence ofDomestic Violence
Barriers to Leaving an Abusive Relationship
Placing Blame on Victims
Cycle of Domestic Violence
PowerandControlTactics
ImmigrationStatus
Acculturation
Patriarchy
Gender Socialization
Media
The collectivist culture
Popular SAI customs and traditions
Arranged marriages and forced marriages
No Inheritance; dowry only
Stigma of divorce
Raksha Bandhan
Lohri
Karva Chauth
Treatment for Survivors of Domestic Violence
Assessment
Support groups for domestic violence
Treatment for PTSD
Cognitive trauma therapy for battered women (CTT-BW)
Collectivist Orientation/Implications for Therapists
Conclusion
Implications for Project
CHAPTER III - PROJECT DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
Project Development
Intended Audience
Environment and Equipment
Project Outline
CHAPTER IV-DISCUSSION
Summary ofProject
Facilitator’s Disclosure
Recommendations for Implementation
Recommendations for Future Research
Conclusion
REFERENCES
APPENDIX: Workshop
DEDICATION
Completing the Master of Counseling in Marriage and Family Therapy program was the most challenging thing that I have ever done in my life. The challenge was due to the self reflections and growth that it required of me. Many professors and theories had me visit times in my life that I had tucked away in an old trunk in an attic per say due to either hurtful, painful or scary memories which I did not want to look at or relive again. After visiting those harsh realities, I found peace within which has given me a new life. I value my transformation more than my degree because I have grown into a person that I admire.
I would like to dedicate this project to the people who helped me through thisjourney by believing in me and unconditionally supporting me. My long list will reveal my collectivist roots. I would like to start off by thanking my nuclear family for not only being supportive, but optimistic, understanding and loving. My husband, Chas, I appreciate all the dinners and errands that you never shied away from, your patience for all those times that I could not watch TV, go out on dates, and was unable to provide you with the support you needed, especially with you losing your parents while I was in this rigorous program. You truly are my best friend!
To my four angels (Jai, Chan, Pavan, and Govin), instead of falling apart, you united and all pulled your weight during my venture. Jai, it wasn’t easy to start a business you had no training for but you matured into a true businessman. Chan you took such a leap to study in another state and have matured into a strong woman who will be an amazing teacher. Pavan you worked hard to obtain your bachelors at UCLA which was no easy task and you have all the making of an awesome therapist. Govin, you were my biggest worry because of your age so thank you son for finishing your high school with honors and being so responsible. I could not be more proud of you all for the amazing warm young adults you have blossomed into.
I am indebted to my parents, Tej Kaur Dhillon and Dr. Jaswant Singh Dhillon, for allowing me to have my voice throughout my life. To my mom who lost her battle to cancer, I made a decision to honor your legacy by going back to college and completing my bachelors. I knew how important it was for you that I achieve a degree in higher education as so many women were not allowed during your time. To my father, you were born into a lineage that consisted of farmers in a small village in Punjab, India, but you knew at a young age that you were going to be different. You dreamt big! Your progressive vision guided you to choose the path of education which took you to Delhi engineering college and then USA. Your choices are admirable! Thank you both for being such great role models by demonstrating hard work ethics, kindness, promoting education, and more importantly allowing me to have a voice.
To my brothers, Jas and Sukh, for the most part of my life, you have both been my best friends. Jas thank you for being the strict brother that I hated when I was growing up. It is because of you that I had the head start in thisjourney, which was having had completed my AA degree. Sukh, you were my cheerleader in going back to school as long as I can remember, but I suppose I needed to pay a therapist to get me to actually enroll.
To my friends, beginning with Laura, for dedicating your time to lift me up whenever I had self doubt or increased anxiety. You are a great listener, nonjudgmental, and a very supportive friend. Heather Humphrey thank for your support at my training site. I couldn’t have gotten through the year without you. I am so grateful to have met you both. You both are kind hearted women who I am proud to be friends within the field of MFT and outside.
Gail Pincus, as my supervisor, you have helped me grow into a much stronger clinician especially when it comes to working with survivors of DV. I am so honored to have been mentored by a trailblazer who has fought for victims ofDV for over 30 years and for creating the domestic abuse response team program that many police stations are utilizing to help victims of DV. You are one exceptional woman but more importantly an amazing clinician and an activist.
To my professors, who continually challenged and inspired me throughout this program and in my undergrad program at CSUN. To name a few, Dr. Laura Edles, it was nerve racking knowing that I was going to be taught by the author of the book that was to be used in our class. However, I learned the most from you than any other theory class. Professor Dominic Little, you made statistical analysis actually seem easy and fun because of the way you taught it. The latter also applies to Professor Raqota Berger who made Methods of Social Research actually interesting and fun. You all posses a style of teaching that instilled in me many terms and concepts that I am still able to retain and apply.
To Dr. Luis Rubaclava, Dr. Stanley Charnofsky, and Dr. Diane Gehart, you all played a crucial role in my transformation. Luis, the calm kind energy you exerted along with having us write reflective papers, provided me with much needed insight for many of my actions and triggers, but especially the negative self talk I had come so accustomed to. Stan, I appreciate your positive, non-judgmental stance that kept my anxiety at bay during tough times. You taught me that a good therapist does not only excel academically but more importantly, s/he must be able to listen, be self-aware and know how to reflect. Diane, I appreciate you kicking my butt into gear when I needed it. Moreover, thank you for promoting mindfulness and making me feel so comfortable and cared for in your postmodern class after I acted out due to many triggers that were coming up for me in this program. I can’t express how grateful I am for having had the opportunity to have been mentored by such great professors.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to thank the members of my committee for their support, encouragement, and patience. Firstly, I want to thank my chair, Dr. Stanley Charnofsky for agreeing to be on my committee and for always being available, supportive, and understanding. Your continuous support academically but more importantly emotionally during the entire duration of this program will never be forgotten. Your gentle guidance is deeply appreciated.
Dr. Bruce Burnam, you are one awesome professor! I greatly appreciate your patience and enthusiasm in reading my project but more importantly for always being available when I needed any type ofhelp. You were a very valuable resource for me especially when it came to editing. I am very grateful for your passion for research. That passion is what makes you remarkable. Thank you for all the editing and providing me with articles and resources when I got stuck or was experiencing a writer’s block.
Dr. Vicki Jensen, I have learned so much from you over the years. It is because of you that Ijoined the MFT graduate program. It was your fieldwork class during my undergrad that awakened my passion to make a difference in the lives of victims that experience domestic violence (DV). Thank you for teaching and mentoring me in the field ofDV. Because of you, I am now helping many victims who are impacted by DV.
I am very grateful and honored to have you all on my committee.
Abstract
Working with South Asian Indian Women Exposed to Domestic Violence in the United States: A Workshop for Therapists
By
Rajinder Basra
Master of Science in Counseling, Marriage and Family Therapy
Domestic violence (DV) affects people of all race, culture, gender, religion, socioeconomic status, and educational levels. In addition, it can happen to heterosexual or same-sex intimate partners who are married, cohabitating, or dating. According to various findings, DV is the single major cause of injury to women, exceeding rapes, muggings, and auto accidents combined. In regards to violence against women i.e., DV, there are many commonalities amongst U.S. and South Asian Indian (SAI) women as well as women from other collectivist cultures. However, there are also very clear differences as well. These differences are disregarded in major studies on DV. Furthermore, the studies conducted are predominately on the Caucasian population, followed by African American and the Fatino population. Findings from these popular studies, which may consist of members from minority groups, are then applied to men and women belonging to various cultural groups such as the Asian community. With very little studies conducted on the Asian population to begin with, and further merging the Asian groups together based on collectivist idealism or other similarities, reveals that there is no consideration to the diverse cultural norms within the various groups. The diverse cultural norms used to socialize individuals can become significant barriers in leaving a DV relationship, as well as receiving the appropriate help from American mental health providers. This study proposes to better equip mental health professionals when working with SAI women by shedding light on many traditions and cultural norms that keep women subordinate to men, and cements patriarchy which this study believes is the root and cause ofDV. With the SAI community growing rapidly in the USA, this study examines how therapists can best approach the treatment ofDV within this specific community as well as DV victims in the general population.
Keywords: domestic violence, intimate partner violence, cycle of abuse, gender socialization, patriarchy, treating South Asian Indian women, dowry, arranged marriage, wife burning
We all know what a bully is...
- living with a bully all the time, but being too scared to leave.
- being afraid to go to sleep at night, being afraid to wake up in the morning.
- being denied food, warmth or sleep.
- being punched, slapped, hit, bitten, pinched and kicked.
- being pushed, shoved, burnt, strangled, raped, beaten.
- having to watch everything you do or say in case it upsets the person you live with or else you’ll be punished.
- having to seek permission to go out, to see your friends or your family, or to give your children a treat.
- being a prisoner in your own home - imagine being timed when you go out to the shops.
- that you believe what he tells you - that it’s your fault. That if only you were a better mother, lover, housekeeper, kept your mouth shut, could only keep the children quiet, dressed how he liked you to, kept in shape, gave up yourjob somehow things would get better.
- that you don’t know where to get help, what to do, or how to leave.
- that you can’t face the shame of admitting what’s really going on to family or friends.
- his threats if you dare to say you will leave. How could you ever find the strength to leave? Will you ever be safe again?
- threats to find and kill you and your children, wherever you go.
- permanent injuries and sometimes death
-Women’s Aid Federation of England (2008) as cited in Harne, 2008, p. 2. The scenario demonstrated in the poster “Imagine” by the Women’s Aid Federation of England (2008) depicts the horror a victim of domestic violence (DV) goes through when living with a batterer. Singh (as cited in Nankani, 2001) asserts that “acts of domestic violence are a worldwide phenomenon” (p. 172). For centuries, male domination in a family and intimate partner relationships remains universal, even in highly developed democratic nations through the use of culture, religion, and law (Addon, 2003; Cluss & Bodeo, 2011; Smith & Weisstub, 2016; Makama, 2013, Wright & Rogers, 2015).
While society is becoming increasingly aware and intolerant of DV, studies reveal that DV is still a widespread phenomenon. According to Roberts and Roberts (2005), Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is one of the “most harmful, traumatic, and life-threatening criminal justice and public health problems in American society; every 9 seconds a woman is assaulted and battered by her male partner” (p. 4). Information in regards to awareness, help, and resources for victims along with research that is currently available tends to focus more on DV in heterosexual White intimate relationships. More attention needs to be given to women experiencing DV from a collectivist culture such as South Asian Indians (SAI). From major “Asian-Pacific groups in the United States, the least known and researched by social scientist is” the SAI group which the “U.S. Census Bureau labels,Asian Indians, also known as “East Indians” (Singh, 1999 p. 641). Raj and Silverman (2012) statethatthe cultural issues regarding DV amongst immigrant women are exhibited in very little studies and furthermore, rely mostly on comparisons with White Americans.
For the duration of this discussion, the terms domestic violence (DV) will be interchangeable with intimate partner violence (IPV). However, acknowledging that other terms such as “wife beating,” “woman abuse,” “partner abuse,” and “spousal abuse,” are also widely used interchangeably. When using DV and IPV, this paper is also referring to the latter terms widely used and furthermore, when one term is used, the other is implied. Although many current studies are using the term IPV, the author of this study has preference to the term DV. This preference is due to IPV inevitably impacting the couple’s friends, family, children, and their community thereby making it a domestic issue not only limited to the intimate partners. Statement of the Problem With the U.S. becoming more diversified, it is crucial that mental health professionals receive better training and more awareness of how to work with families of DV from a collectivist cultural perspective. The United States Census Bureau (2010) reports that the Asian Indian population in the U.S. reveals a growth rate of 69.37%, making it one of the fastest growing ethnic groups in the United States (Hoeffel, Rastogi, Kim, & Shahid, 2012; Liao, 2006).
To conduct a thorough analysis ofDV amongst South Asian Indian (SAI) women victimized by DV is a difficult task, as there is great difficulty in gathering information in regards to this population (Raj & Silverman, 2012). This is due to this group’s worldview of placing greater emphasis on the family and not the individual (Dasgupta& Warrier, 1996; Raj & Silverman, 2012). This worldview is clarified by Haj-Yahia (2011) as a collectivist cultural pattern which “can also be found among first, second, and third-generation members of collectivist communities” (p.333). Furthermore, Haj-Yahia notes that while members of collectivist groups reside in countries where individualism may be the practiced norm, the individuals from the collectivist groups “emphasize their extended family (oftentimes no less, and even more than their nuclear family), as well as their tribe, cultural/ethnic community, and nationality” (p.333). As a result, members of the collectivist culture often tend to sacrifice personal needs, aspirations, goals, and expectations for the benefit of their family, thus less likely to report DV (Haj-Yahia, 2011).
The following literature review will attempt to answer the popular question regarding victims not leaving abusive relationships i.e., “Why doesn’t she leave?” Firstly, the literature review will answer this questions by discussing the roles that history, societal norms, cycle of violence, power and control tactics, immigration status, and acculturation all play in why the victim does not leave. Secondly, along with these barriers, role of patriarchy in DV and how patriarchy has been maintained through the use of gender socialization are further discussed. Thirdly, the collectivist cultural beliefs are explored and how that alone can be a barrier for many victims not leaving their abusive partner. Through understanding the barriers that prevent victims from leaving abusive relationship, therapists can be better equipped in treating victims ofDV. There is a need for mental health professionals to be more sensitive to the needs ofDV clients and to be culturally sensitive when working with DV clients belonging to the SAI community; hence attention will be given to particular norms and traditions in the SAI culture which impacts gender socialization. This study will examine how therapists in Western countries can be better prepared to help victims of DV who belong to the SAI community.
This project is significant for many reasons. With the aforementioned number of women exposed to DV and not much attention being given to women belonging to the SAI community, leaves them more susceptible than their counter parts. This study would also like to point out that immigrant SAI women are far more vulnerable than other immigrant women (e.g., Latino) due to lack of resources and barriers such language, rigid gender roles, arranged marriage, dowry, and in-law abuse due to women having to reside with the husband’s paternal family. The SAI “group of immigrants is more isolated than many when it comes to getting help escaping domestic violence” (Domesticshelters.org, 2016). It is increasingly evident that counselors need to become more competent with respect to issues of multiculturalism and diversity. Sue (2004) asserts that professionals need to be more aware of their biases and privileges to avoid being locked in a Euro American worldview. Sue explains that people who are unaware and oblivious to their ideologies and privileges, can end up oppressing people of color, women, and other marginalized groups (2004). With ethnic minority groups rising, Ahmed, Wilson, Henriksen Ir., and lones (2011) stress the need for counselors to be multiculturally competent.
Purpose of the Project
The purpose of this project is to hold workshops to help professionals in the mental health field to develop a better understanding of how to work with victims that have survived a DV relationship or are currently in one, along with specific attention given to DV victims who belong to the SAI community. At one of the field sites, the author of this project witnessed a lack of empathy by fellow counselors along with a sense ofjudgment and lack of patience for women that were coming in for therapy due to DV. This attitude was stemming from therapists not having had thorough training in understanding why these women stayed or stay with their abuser or why they go back to him i.e., the power and control tactic used by their batterer or barriers to appointments such as babysitting.
This training process would begin with therapists gaining knowledge of the impact of family laws that have promoted a long history of domestic abuse to preserve patriarchy. Next, to provide insight to why victims stay in abusive relationship and the barriers this population faces are discussed. This will include information on how power and control along with the cycle of abuse are used by the victims’ partners to lure and seduce the victims and further keep them trapped in the abusive relationship. Gender socialization which heavily aids in maintaining patriarchal values over centuries are also addressed, along with popular festivities in the SAI community that socialize women to believe that they are the weaker of the two species.
This study will lastly present and analyze interventions that can bring about best outcomes for survivors ofDV relationships. While there are many strength based therapies that have revealed to be successful in treating trauma, this study will examine modalities that are distinct to treating DV survivors. DV support groups and Cognitive Trauma Therapy for Battered Women (CTT-BW) which includes relaxations exercises such as Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) have shown promising results when working with this population (Kubany & Ralston, 2008). Along with the latter, implications for therapists in working with clients from the collectivist culture will be discussed.
Statement of Significance
With the rapid growth of the SAI population in the United States, and an estimated “one in every four SAI families experiencing domestic violence” (Vora, as cited in Nankani, 2001, p. 121), this project can be utilized by professionals in the mental health field and various programs to better facilitate women from collectivist ideologies, in particular the SAI women. As will be discussed later, therapists can work individually or in group settings that can be available in many modalities, such as in community and agency based settings. The goal is to create a standardized curriculum that can form the basis for specific approaches and rapport building with clients from multicultural backgrounds, in particular SAI women, who were or are trapped in DV relationships. This paper is hopeful in achieving this goal so that organizations and agencies can provide culturally appropriate, sensitive services that are staffed with professionals who are equipped to work with this population.
Terminology
In order to avoid any obscurities, terms used in this project will be defined. This paper acknowledges that that acts ofDV are committed by both men and women against their spouses or same-sex partners. While women and same-sex partners can also abuse, due to the length of this discussion and limited studies, this study will cover DV in heterosexual relationships where women will be referred to as the victims. The latter statement aligns with findings from various studies such as Kaur (2008) revealing that victims of IPV are most commonly women. Furthermore, Roberts and Roberts (2005) state that: “Each year 8.7 million women in the U.S. are victims of IPV; every day, 4 women are murdered by a boyfriend, husband, or a former intimate partner; DV is the number one cause of emergency room visits by women” (p.4). Due to these findings, the following terms are suitable for this study: batterer/s, perpetrator/s, abuser/s, husband/s, boyfriend/s, to be applied to males who abuse their intimate heterosexual partner; while using the term victim/s, survivor/s, wife, girlfriend/s for women who are abused or battered by their heterosexual male intimate partner. These terms along with DV and IPV will be applied interchangeably and will hold the same meaning throughout this project. Furthermore, when one is used, the other is also implied. The latter also pertains to the terms counselor/s, clinicians, therapist/s as all being licensed mental health professionals.
The South Asian Indian community in the United States includes individuals who trace their ancestry to Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, Nepal (South Asian Americans Leading Together, 2015; South Asian American Federation, 2016; Wilson, 2006). The Indian community along with various studies also use the following terms when referring to South Asian Indians (SAI) as follows: Indians, Asians, South Asians, East Indians, Punjabis, Hindus, Bengalis, and Pakistanis when using the term SAIs (South Asian Americans, 2015).
Due to minimal reporting, accessing services,F and limitation of studies on the SAI group, research findings for this discussion will be applied from various Asian groups and other collectivist cultures as needed. When referring to the collectivist cultural belief system i.e., Eastern philosophy, this paper is referring to the ideology where emphasis is placed on what is good for the entire clan using interdependent interactions, as opposed to the Western philosophy where emphasis is placed more on independence. Furthermore, the collectivist groups are also referred to as people of color. As a result of limited studies conducted on SAI Americans, various findings from UK, Canada, Australia, and other Western countries will be utilized.
Chapter II
Literature Review
With society being increasingly aware and intolerant ofDV, this chapter examines how is it that DV is still a widespread phenomenon in the United States. The literature review will focus on female victims. The chapter will be divided into four sub-sections. In the first sub-section the study will define DV, discuss the impact of historical laws regarding DV, and present the prevalence of DV. The second sub-section will address why victims stay, which will entail covering the barriers i.e., blaming the victims, the cycle of abuse, immigration status, and acculturation. The third sub-section will explore how patriarchy is rooted in violence against women and how gender socialization play a crucial part in its maintenance. Gender socialization through the use of various types of media as well as cultural norms, and SAI traditions are further discussed. The author of this study believes that gender socialization is the main component and the root that sets the groundwork in preserving patriarchy, and that patriarchy plays a major role injustifying violence against women i.e., DV. The fourth sub-section will cover treating survivors of DV by therapists firstly prioritizing the need for assessing for lethality, safety planning, and providing appropriates referrals. Secondly, DV support groups and evidence based approach, Cognitive Trauma Therapy for Battered Women (CTT-BW), will be discussed with emphasis placed on treatment for PTSD as well as implications for therapists when working with DV survivors coming from collectivist ideologies.
Definition of Domestic Violence (DV)/Intimate Partner Violence
IPV commonly refers to psychological, physical, or sexual harm inflicted by a current or former partner or spouse (World Health Organization, 2012). According to Knudson-Martin and Mahoney (2009), among intimate partners, power “refers to the ability of one person to influence a relationship toward his own goals, interests, and well-being” (p. 10). The United States Department of Justice (2016) defines DV as “a pattern of abusive behavior in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over another intimate partner.” Furthermore, that “DV can be physical, sexual, emotional, economic, or psychological actions or threats of actions that influence another person. This includes any behaviors that intimidate, manipulate, humiliate, isolate, frighten, terrorize, coerce, threaten, blame, hurt, injure, or wound someone” (para.1). Durve (2012) includes religion and spiritual abuse to this list defining it as “using religious beliefs, ideologies, or sacred texts to support abusive behavior and discredit or trivialize personal beliefs” (p.14). The “defining point of abuse” according to Bancroft (2002) “is when the man starts to exercise power over the woman in a way that causes harm to her and creates a privileged status for him” (p. 124).
The U.S. Department of Justice (2016) further asserts that anyone regardless of race, age, sexual orientation, religion, or gender can be a victim ofDV. Additionally, DV affects people of all socioeconomic backgrounds, education levels, and can happen to intimate partners who are married, living together, or dating (Department of Justice, 2016). The definition can be applied to both same-sex and opposite-sex couples, however the focus of this discussion will be heterosexual couples.
History of Domestic Violence (DV)
After examining the historical timeline ofDV on several websites such as the Indiana Coalition Against Domestic Violence (ICADV, 2018), National Women’s History Project (NWHP), and Herstory ofDomestic Violence, one can align with Makama (2013) that male domination in a family or in intimate relationships has been a part of most cultures for centuries. For example, according to SafeNetwork , the Laws of Chastisement in 753 B.C. made room for wife beating to be accepted and condoned. Under these laws, the husband had absolute rights to physically discipline his wife. These laws permitted the husband to beat his wife with a rod or switch as long as its circumference is no greater than the girth of the base of the man’s right thumb, hence “The Rule of Thumb” (SafeNetwork, 1999; ICADV, 2019).
Fast forward to late 1800s, which is a time in the USA when violence and abuse committed against women within the confines of their marriage was implicitly accepted as a husband’s right (SafeNetwork, 1999; ICADV, 2016); an era where it was legal for a man in the “English-speaking world to physically abuse his wife” (Bancroft, 2002 p. 320). Bancroft argues that the woman had no choice but to stay due to the support given to husbands by the police and the courts. The abusive situation would hold the victim further hostage if she had children because the “husband was legally entitled to custody of their children” should she decide to divorce (Bancroft, p. 321).
It was not until the year 1900 that all states granted married women some control over their property and earnings (“National Women’s History Project” (NWHP), 2018. Although legal consequences for severe beating of women were legislated in the late nineteenth century, Bancroft (2002) argues that they were hardly ever enforced until the 1970s and not “enforced consistently at all until the 1990s” (p. 321). This change, according to Bancroft was ignited by the women’s’ movement of the 1960 and 1970s (Bancroft, 2002). It wasn’t until the late 1970s that DV started gaining recognition as a crime of violence in the U.S. However, it took almost 20 more years for federal and state legislation to provide protection for victims ofDV which was not only limited to a woman that is married to her abuser i.e., the wife, but also dating, along with serious punishment for the batterers (SafeNetwork, 1999; ICADV, 2016; NWHP, 2018).
According to “National Women’s History Project” (2018), in 1981 the state laws that designated a husband “head and master” with unilateral control of property owned jointly with his wife was outlawed. By the nineties, more recognition started to rise in regard to violence against women. In 1994, The Violence Against Women Act took effect. This act provides funds and services for victims of rape and domestic violence, allows women to seek civil rights remedies for gender-related crimes, and provides training to increase police and court officials’ sensitivity along with a national 24-hour hotline for battered women to utilize (NWHP, 2018).
While the 1800s were terrible times for women and children due to laws permitting men to beat their wives and children in the USA, Banerjee (2018) laments that in India wives were being burned alive to accompany their deceased husbands’ cremations. It wasn’t until December, 1829 that the practice of Sati (also spelled Sutee) or “wife burning” was outlawed by GovernorGenera, Lord William Bentinck (“Banerjee, 2018). Liao (2006) explains that the widowed woman “committed suicide” either voluntarily or by the use of force or coercion. The best known form of sati was when a woman burned to death on her husband's funeral. Sati was practiced amongst many communities in India and was considered the highest honor for a widowed woman (Liao, 2006). Although the practice was made illegal in 1829, Nankani (2000) contends that the last famous practice was held on September 04, 1987 in a village of Rajasthan where an eighteen-year-old widow who had been married seven years burned to her death on her husband’s funeral.
Although the Indian succession act was passed in 1925 to provide women equal property rights, substantial biases persist even in present time (Singh, 2017). The discriminatory attitude inflicted on daughters if they had been given a share of the property pressured the daughters not to accept their inheritance right. To have better success with the act placed during the British era, Roy (2015) affirms that the Hindu Succession Act was implemented in 1956 which has also not been successful thus far. Roy argues that while the reform is implemented to place a law of “succession for sons and daughters to enjoy equal inheritance rights to family property,” it failed to increase the actual likelihood of women inheriting property. The findings of Roy’s study indicate that after the reform, parents either provide their daughters with higher dowries or more education to compensate their daughters for the disinheritance (2015).
The Dowry Prohibition Act ofl961 was passed in India to outlaw the practice of dowry (Diwan, 1983). This act states that “to give, take, or demand a dowry is an offense punishable by imprisonment and fines” (Diwan, 1983, p. 77). However, Anderson (2003) asserts that dowry is commonly practiced in marriages in India. Dagupta and Warrier (1997) explain that dowry is monetary or material resources that are given by the bride’s family to the groom’s family. Dasgupta and Warrier also reveal that many times, the groom’s family may also expect or demand money and goods after the wedding ceremony and throughout the marriage as well (1997).
Prevalence of DV
While Tjaden and Thoennes (2000) report that twenty-five percent of women in the USA experience DV in their lifetime, Roberts and Roberts (2005) break down the statistics to that “every 9 seconds a woman is assaulted and battered by her male partner” (p. 4). Network of Care Solano County, California (2018) focused on the issue of DV among immigrant women. The findings obtained from a survey conducted on immigrant Korean women, suggests that 60 percent of the participants had been battered by their husbands. Furthermore, those immigrant women in the U.S. often suffer higher rates ofbattering than U.S. citizens because they may come from cultures that accept DV or because the immigrant women have less access to legal and social services than U.S. citizens. Additionally, immigrant batterers and victims may believe that the penalties and protections of the U.S. legal system do not apply to them (Network of Care Solano County, California, 2018).
In regards to SAI women, Yoshihama and Dabby (2009), using a sample size of 160 South Asian women, (who were married or in a heterosexual relationship), found 40.8% reported experiencing “physical or sexual abuse by their current male partners”; 36.9% reported some form of intimate partner violence in the past year. 30.4% reported having experienced partners’ physical abuse, and 18.8%, sexual abuse; 15.8% reported injury or the need for medical services as a consequence of a partner’s violence. From the total sample, the respondents who were married at the time of the survey, a 5.7% reported having experienced emotional abuse by their in-laws as well. The researchers found no significant difference in the report of DV between arranged marriages and non-arranged marriages. [Note: “Arranged marriages refer to the practice of parents selecting a spouse for their adult child.”] (Yoshihama & Dabby, 2009, p. 9). Vora (as citied in Nankani, 2001) reports that “one in every four South Asian families experience domestic violence” (p. 121).
Trying to achieve an accurate account of prevalence ofDV in the SAI community in the U.S. is more difficult than this project expected. This is due to SAI women avoiding making DV reports because of their cultural beliefs, and fear of receiving no help, (Dasgupta 2000; Singh, 1999). According to Kaur Life (2016), social stigma prevents SAI victims from sharing private information such as DV with authorities, co-workers, neighbors or close friends. Therefore, DV has gone unnoticed in the legal and social systems (2016). Furthermore, the Women of Color Network (2006) reports that “within the Asian and Pacific Islander communities, emotional control, respect for authority, self-blame, perseverance, and the acceptance of suffering are considered highly valued virtues and traits.” (para.3). These values and culturally based responses contribute to SAI women’s unwillingness or hesitance to express their victimization even to people inside their close circle of friends and family (2006).
Barriers to Leaving an Abusive Relationship
Placing blame on victims. According to the Domestic Abuse Shelter of the Florida Keys (2016), Michael Down, Director of the Battered Women’s Justice Center at Pace University School of Law, points out that in response as to why she doesn’t leave, suggests that battered women can control the violence and further implies that the women are to blame when they are unable to leave the batterer. He asserts that victims cannot control this violence; the ones responsible are the abusers (Domestic Abuse Shelter of the Florida, 2016). In his Ted Talk on violence against women, Katz (2012) affirms that our culture is producing violent men. He points out a passive pattern that has evolved in media as follows: “John beat Mary (active). Mary was beaten by John (passive). Mary was beaten/battered (passive). Mary is a battered woman (active).” Katz argues that "this evolution of victim-blaming is pervasive in our society” i.e., we ask why Mary put herself into a position to be beaten by John (Katz, 2012)).
In further examining why victims stay in DV relationships, Bancroft (2002) argues that in asking why the victim stays, society is excusing many of the abusers actions and placing blame on the victim. Bancroft created the first program that was specifically created for abusive men in the U.S. After two decades of research, he highlights many myths that excuse a batterer’s behaviors. For the purpose of this project, special attention is paid to the myth of counselors and society placing blame on the victim by holding her some part accountable for the abuse i.e., as an “enabler.” This notion, it “takes two to tango” per say can be applied to couples in equilibrium that are experiencing a low conflict relationship but not to chronic DV relationships. When working with couples, Bancroft suggests that therapists be mindful during assessment and in treatment of who holds power in the relationship, especially regarding cases where DV is present. The following passage that Bancroft directly addresses to his reader i.e., the victim is beneficial not only for survivors ofDV but therapists as well. Bancroft (2002) writes:
Part of how the abuser escapes confronting himself is by convincing you [the victim] that you are the cause of his behavior, or that you at least share the blame. But abuse is not the product of bad relationship dynamics, and you cannot make things better by changing your own behavior or by attempting to manage your partner better. Abuse is a problem that lies entirely within the abuser (p. 19).
Cycle of domestic violence. Many DV relationships follow a repetitive abusive cycle consisting of three phases. Walker (as cited in Family Crisis Center, 2010) breaks down this cycle of violence into the following three phases: Tension-building Phase, Acute or Crisis Phase also referred to as Battering Phase, and the Honeymoon or Calm Phase. The timing of each phase may differ for couples, and some couples may not report such a pattern. However, Walker argues that intervention is necessary, because without interventions, the frequency and severity of the abuse tends to increase over time (Family Crisis Center, 2010).
According to the online Domestic Violence Handbook (2015), phase one is defined as the tension building stage, when the abusive behaviors start to appear in subtle ways. In phase two, the violence reaches a climax and the acute battering incident occurs where the lethality is very high for the victim. This phase is unpredictable and out of the victim’s control. The honeymoon phase which is the third phase is when the batterer calms down and attempts to rectify the situation by asking the victim for forgiveness, acts very loving and kind, or minimizes and denies the violence hence placing blame on the victim. Once things are calm, the tension phase will start to build up again and the cycle repeats itself (Domestic Violence Handbook, 2015).
Power and control tactics. According to the Domestic Violence Handbook (2015), literature on DV that addresses the cycle of violence highlights common tactics that abusers uses to maintain power and control over their victims. The power and control wheel that has been originally developed by the Domestic Abuse Intervention Project, illustrates these tactics in a simple format. According to The National Domestic Violence Hotline (NDVH) and The National Coalition Against Domestic Violence (NCADV), the power and control wheel illustrates the cycle of abuse in a simple way which therapists can utilize to provide psychoeducation when working with DV victims. While the wheel highlights the physical abuse and sexual abuse, the spokes of the wheel highlight the various psychological abuse tactics which are lesser violent tactics that are not easily identified. The latter tactics further assist in establishing the pattern of intimidation and control in the relationship. The less identifiable tactics that are illustrated within the wheel are as follows: Batterers using emotional abuse; isolation; minimizing, denying, and blaming; using children; male privilege; economic/financial abuse; threats, intimidation and coercion; emotional withholding, destruction of property, or self destructive behavior. The wheel symbolizes abuse as being cyclical. The power and control along with the three phase cycle are powerful tactics that keep women trapped in DV relationships (Domestic Violence Handbook, 2015)
The Domestic Abuse Shelter of the Florida Keys (2016) has a posting of a list of additional reasons why victims stay in abusive relationship. While some overlap with the three phase abusive cycle and power and control tactics, the additional reasons are as follows: a) leaving the abuse and being alone can be more frightening for the victim than remaining in the relationship. With statistics showing that women who leave their batterers are at a 75% greater risk of being killed than those who stay, along with history of her repeatedly being threatened by the abuser that he will harm her and anyone close to her if she leaves, are major factors in her staying; b) being a single parent can be a terrifying experience for a battered woman; c) the abusers will frequently promise that it will never happen again and are often very charming and loving when not abusing the victim. The women often tend to fall for their batterer’s softer side, especially the tenderness that they show immediately following each attack (the honeymoon phase of the abuse cycle); d) most women want the violence to end, but love their partner and want the relationship; e) she may believe that her partner is sick and needs her help. Thus, the idea of leaving her spouse can produce feelings of guilt; f) the woman has been told repeatedly by her abuser that she somehow deserves the abuse she is being subjected to and may come to believe it. Lack of self-esteem and the belief that she doesn’t deserve anything better can be paralyzing for a battered woman; g) societal acceptance/reinforcement of marital violence: Many people believe that marital violence is acceptable. “She’s there because she likes it,” or “A little slap will keep her in line.”; h) economic dependency on the partner is often a very real reason for remaining in the relationship; I) religious beliefs often reinforce the commitment to a marriage; j) stigma of a broken home (Domestic Abuse Shelter of the Florida Keys, 2016).
Immigration status. Along with the Barriers mentioned earlier, women not holding legal residency in the USA are more vulnerable to DV. Bonilla and Santiago’s (2002) findings indicate that women without legal status will be more tolerant of abuse due to fear of deportation than women with legal status. The authors further note that the inability to speak English can make the difference between a woman getting help or suffering the abuse alone (Bonilla & Santiago, 2002). Singh (as cited in Nankani, 2001) argues that laws that make it difficult for victims to reside in America and further restricts welfare benefits makes DV victims even more susceptible to abuse. Furthermore, even if a victims has been married to a U.S. citizen, when she decides to escape the abuse, Singh asserts that she will still need to provide ample proof (E.G., medical reports, psychologist reports, social services reports, and police reports) to indicate to authorities that she is in fact a battered woman (Nankani, 2001).
Acculturation. According to Cunradi (2009), Mexican American women born in the United States are twice as more likely to report IPV victimization than their counter parts who are born in Mexico. Hinojosa’s (2011) findings revealed that if the increase in acculturation was higher, the chance of the victim reporting IPV was also higher. Hinojosa further states that acculturation also indicates that women who only spoke Spanish (less acculturated) were less likely to report physical abuse from their partners than were immigrant women who were more acculturated. Contrary to these researchers, Torres et al. (2000) note that the process of acculturation, which is sometimes assumed as one which will set immigrant women free from rigid social structures, is sometimes the very thing that pushes relationships to violence (Torres et al., 2000). Tran and Des Jardin (2000) assert that when ideologies change, immigrant women may no longer be willing to conform to certain traditional gender-based norms. This can result in increased male efforts to control women, including the use of violence. Dasgupta (2000) explains that South East Asian women tend to stay in abusive relationships due to lack of support from their family and community. While speaking out is seen as a betrayal of the family values, the researcher further argues that these women fear seeking formal support because they are concerned about the service agencies, or thejustice system looking at their culture or country of origin in a negative manner (Dasgupta, 2000).
Patriarchy
The continuation of a patriarchal structure can be preserved through the process of gender socialization and cultural norms. Mock and Baima (2015) assert that patriarchal values are taught to individuals from the time they are born and are continuously reinforced throughout their lives. Shin (2015) asserts that “From the earliest days of the USA, “humanity” was defined as male, white and propertied” (p. 16). Kaur and Garg (2008) contend that the problem is that patriarchy serves to support DV. Their findings illustrate that women are poorly equipped to protect themselves in cultures where patriarchal power structure is apparent and traditional strict gender roles are practiced (2008).
Even though immigration to the U.S. can provide many opportunities, Dasgupta and DasGupta (1996) argue that it has not encouraged SAIs to abandon traditional gender inequalities. Instead power and control are being established within the SAI community which is paving the way for horrible consequences for SAI women (Dasgupta & Warrier, 1996). Because socialization into the structure of patriarchy takes place over an entire lifetime, George (2005) notes that it may hold women in patterns of little or no power, even when the opportunity or circumstances to change it are present. George’s study on U.S. immigrant women from Keralite, India reveals that after joining the work force, instead of challenging the oppression and taking advantage of their new power, many of these working women handed over their unsealed paychecks to their husbands to make their husband feel like the breadwinner. However, Mexican women on the other hand, who immigrated and found employment, experienced greater independence opposed to those who were dependent on their husbands. The latter reveals that the collectivist cultures should not be lumbered into one category as they vary depending on the severity of patriarchal ideologies and the level of value placed on the family as a whole (George 2005). Patriarchy being maintained through gender socialization where both genders are exposed in variety of ways is further discussed.
Gender Socialization
Dasgupta and Warrier (1996) report that, “many activists and experts in the field ofDV consider wife abuse to be a by-product of patriarchal social structures that are based on asymmetrical gender relations” (p. 241). Knox and Schacht (2010) describe the common factor of gender socialization process within cultures by stating that, “The family is a gendered institution with female and male roles highly structured by gender” (p. 87). Bancroft (2002) notes that the strongest influence on children’s learning through modeling comes from the family that they grow up in. Bancroft states that children as young as age three can take in the rules and traditions of their culture (p. 320). Bancroft argues that DV is a common and often tolerated outgrowth of the process of socialization through the family as well as the media (2002).
Media. The media often represents women as soft and beautiful, and in relationship to men as objects to be won and/or prizes to flaunt. Jean Kilbourne’s (2012) documentaries such as, the Killing Us Softly series reveals how women are seen as objects for men to appreciate. This objectification, she argues, makes women more vulnerable to DV (Kilbourne, 2012). Swami et al. (2010) examined the associations among sexist beliefs, objectification of others, and media exposure. The researchers found that sexism exists where beauty ideals are rigidly practiced and followed (Swami et al., 2012). In mainstream Hindi films in India, Abraham (2000) argues that SAI women are represented in an inflexible image of having a subordinate status to men. Abraham utilizes an analysis by Dasgupta on Hindi films produced in India where Dasgupta writes that “women are presented in these films as helpless prey in the hands of powerful men and an even more powerful social system” (2000, p. 20).
Bancroft (2002) states that media such as children’s’ books, television, videos, jokes, and popular songs, can impact how children behave, their beliefs regarding gender roles, and their moral understanding of what is right and wrong. Bancroft asserts that negative messages through the use of various forms of media can be relayed as women being the weaker of the two species, and the men being the superior and more entitled one which can lead to the obvious, promoting violence against women. Bancroft provides several examples of his stance. One example comes from a popular children’s book series, The Bernstein Bears. The book is titled, “Trouble at School” and Bancroft notes that the cover illustrates a young boy looking at his very angry father while his younger sister is clinching to her mother. Bancroft argues that the message the book cover sends is of men holding power in the home. Another example Bancroft utilizes to get his point across is through the use of the song, Kim, by the artist Eminem. Parts of the lyrics of the song are as follows: “If you move I’ll beat the shit out of you,” While the listener can hear Kim crying for help, Eminem shouts, “Bleed, bitch, bleed!” (2002, p. 323). Bancroft asserts that society is comfortable with violence against women as this song won a Grammy for promoting the murder of a woman. However, Bancroft argues that if the artist had “openly promoted the killing of Jews, or blacks, or people in wheelchairs would be considered ineligible for a Grammy” (2002, p. 323).
The collectivist culture. Traditional masculinity internalized by males in the U.S. while they are growing is defined by Hopton and Huta (2013) as: “(a) avoid femininity (b) strive for achievement and success; (c) avoid vulnerability and emotion, be independent; and (d) be forceful, aggressive, and fearless” (p. 301). The latter list can be applied to males belonging to collectivist cultures as well. Moreover, according to many researchers, the internalized masculinity would consist of further rigid gender specific rules for both sexes to adhere to (Dasgupta and Warrier, 1996; Abraham, 2000; Wasin, 2014). Gondolf s (1998) study’s results also align with the latter regarding rigid gender roles for members of collectivist culture. Gondolf explains that Latina women are generally socialized to be nurturing and submissive, whereas Hispanic men are encouraged to be macho or domineering (Gondolf, 1998). According to Abraham (as cited in Wasim, 2014), in “South Asian culture, the female in the family is considered and socialized to be: dependent, modest, shy, self-sacrificing, inferior, and submissive” (p. 139). This social inequality can lead women in interpreting the abuse as normal or as an ‘excuse’ for the abuse (Wasim, 2014). Abraham (2000) states that SAI women who do not conform to gender role expectations and challenge cultural norms are seen as being “deviant, without shame, not caring for the honor of the family, or too westernized.” Along with the latter barriers, the SAI community being a complex system consisting of various languages, castes, traditions, religions, and ideologies can further complicate the decision for a woman to leave her abusive relationship. Festivities that assist in promoting patriarchal values which make women more susceptible to stay in the abusive marriage is discussed next,
Popular SAI customs and traditions. There are many customs and traditions in various SAI groups that socialize women to think they are subordinate to men. Due to the length of this discussion, a few popular ones will be addressed.
Arranged marriages and forced marriages. Although Dupree, Bhakta and Patel (2013) state that statistics on arranged marriages for SAI in the United States are limited, they note that arranged marriages among Asian Indian Americans are a common practice as in India. An arranged marriage is customary and one of the “most common forms of marriage in South Asia” (Abraham, 2000 p. 21). Wealth, education, appearance, age, and family background are a significant criterion that is utilized at the very beginning to evaluate if the match is to be considered for both families (Abraham, 2000 p. 21). Caste and religion play a crucial role and are also checked at the beginning to see if the match is suitable in the process of arranging the marriage. According to Abraham, there are various polarized differences in the belief system in the SAI community. For example, in regards to religion; a very common one is that Hindus, Christians, and Sikhs do not practice the norm of marrying within their own kinship as Muslims do (Abraham, 2000).
Inevitably the evaluation process is inherently not equal due to the dominate position the prospective groom’s family holds over the bride, states Abraham (2000). This inequality exists due to unmarried SAI women/girls being more stigmatized than SAI unmarried men. This stigma along with the importance of bearing children inevitably places more pressure for females to find a suitable male match. Abraham further reports that after marriage, SAI women are further placed in a vulnerable unfair position due to her having to reside with her husband’s family along with the worldview on fertility. According to Abraham, “a woman’s fertility is central in defining her status and identity,” as well as “the birth of sons in continuing the patrilineage” (Abraham, 2000, p.22).
Through this arrangement, Abraham (2000) posits that SAI women are more prone to marital rape. Abraham elaborates on the latter by stating that SAI women are more susceptible to marital rape due to gender socialization and the worldview of family honor being closely tied to controlling women’s sexuality, and sexual relations prior to and outside of marriage for SAI women considered to be taboo. This worldview leads many SAI women to be sexually inexperienced and emotionally unprepared for their wedding night. With not much exposure in preparing for their wedding night along with not knowing their husband one-on-one, and their perception of this experience predominantly stemming from observing popular Indian films, Abraham argues that for many women their wedding night becomes an experience of “sex without intimacy.” Many women in Abraham’s (2000) study disclose that their wedding night made them “feel lonely, empty, and objectified” (p. 92). The women further state that their first sexual experience was equivalent to a rape as well the duration of the marriage. Abraham points out that the latter stems from the assumption that male aggression is seen as a normal part of sexual activity while the assumption for women are to be shy and silent to the aggression (Abraham, 2000).
No Inheritance; dowry only. The Indian succession act was passed in 1925 to provide women equal property rights, but substantial predisposition continues (Singh, 2017). The unfair, biased attitude placed against a daughter if she has been given a share of the property inevitably pressures her not to accept her right hence reducing her rights to the property on paper only. In order to have better success with the act placed during the British era, Roy (2015) states that the 1956 Hindu Succession Act’s was implemented and the intent was for “sons and daughters to enjoy equal inheritance rights to family property” (p. 244). However, the act did not increase the actual likelihood of women inheriting property. Instead, Roy’s study indicates that after the reform, parents either provide their daughters with higher dowries or more education to compensate their daughters for the disinheritance (Roy, 20154).
Although, the practice of dowry was outlawed in India in 1961, it is commonly practiced in marriages in India (Anderson, 2003). Many researchers have described dowry as a form of inheritance or an investment given to daughters due to the custom ofbrides having tojoin their husband’s household, i.e., reside with their husband and his family (Anderson, 2003; Rao, 1993; Dasgupta & Warrier, 1997). This is because family life in India is said to be patrilineal where kinship is defined through men. In the U.S., Dasgupta and Warrier’s (1996) qualitative research on SAI women revealed that 50 percent of the victims that were being abused by their husbands was either due to their perception of receiving an inadequate dowry or wanting the bride’s parents to still provide gifts after having been married for years. Do to the latter expectation; Dasggupta and Warrier assert that husbands’ families also play a part in the ongoing violence against these women. One of the victim’s in the 1996 study reported that her “in-laws felt that her husband had a right to beat her as her dowry was small” (Dagupta & Warrier, 1996 p.251).
Stigma of divorce. According to Dupree et al. (2013), a number of studies reveal that divorce rates are low in SAIs(. Lee (2015) indicates that “divorce is commonly viewed as unacceptable, and women receive positive societal reinforcement for “enduring” violence for the sake of their families’ togetherness” (p.93). Additionally, Abraham (2000) points out that SAI women who leave their husbands are labeled “loose, immoral, unlucky, a burden to the parents, selfish, and uncaring.” The latter labels lead SAI women to social ostracism which can also be extended to her family as well (2000, p. 21). For example, Abraham argues that the stigma of divorce can further impact the victim’s unmarried sisters’ marriage eligibility as well (2000).
Raksha Bandhan. The word Raksha means protection, whilst Bandhan is the verb to tie (BBC, 2014). According to Nesbitt (1993) Raksha Bandhan, also referred to as Rakhi, is an annual popular festival celebrated across India where sisters tie a sacred thread on their brother’s wrist and perform a short prayer for their brothers’ good health and long life. Nesbitt explains that the brothers can be male cousins who have a close bond with each other, and also in cases when a female does not have a sibling brother of her own. The sister gives her brother something sweet after tying the thread, and he in return vows to protect his sister and offers her a gift, usually of money. The concept ofRaksha Bandhan is mainly that of protection and Nesbitt argues that “the brother’s gift indicates the strong protecting the weak” (Nesbitt, 1993, p.81).
Lohri. According to Bhalla (2005), Northern India celebrates the yearly Punjabi festival of Lohri, which marks the end of the winter. Do to major crops grown in this region, harvesting season holds special importance for farmers (Bhalla, 2005; Bedi, 2006). Apart from celebrating the good harvest, Lohri also celebrates fertility. Although many studies and websites that are not scholarly state that Lohri celebrates the birth of a child, Nesbitt (1993) argues and aligns with the information provided on Lohri festival that the celebration is for the birth of a male child and a first marriage in a family as well as the first harvest.
Karva Chauth. Bhalla (2005) states that a married woman or an engaged woman is not allowed to touch food or even water during this festivity. Bhalla describes karva chauth as a customary annual celebration in India where married women fast from sunrise to moonrise (the entirety of day) to ensure prosperity, longevity and well-being of their husbands (2005). Rait (2005) draws attention to a well known phrase, “Pati Parmeshwar hota hai,” used during this festivity (Google Translate: Hindi -“Pati Parmeshwar hota hai” translated in English is “husband is God”). The message that husband is equal to God is embedded in “unmarried daughters to imitate their mother’s behavior” (Nesbitt, 1993, p. 81). Nesbitt indicates that in the lives of Indian children, festivities such as these start gender socialization process very early, hence pressuring them to adhere to traditional strict gender roles (1993).
Treatment for Survivors of Domestic Violence
According to the Domestic Abuse Shelter of the Florida Keys (2016), there are various treatments and modalities that have shown to be successful when working with survivors ofDV. However, DV experts argue that mental health professionals need to be cautious of not following tradition protocol of treatment i.e., focusing on following guidelines of a particular theory. For example, in most cases therapy entails an assessment and then the therapist adhering to her/his theory of choice and treating accordingly by using the interventions for the preferred model. As mentioned earlier, many DV experts stress that, when working with DV survivors, therapists must first and most importantly assess for lethality as well as going over safety planning during first contact (Domestic Abuse Shelter of the Florida Keys, 2016). Next, prioritize in locating appropriate referrals and resources such as shelters, restraining orders, legal aid, and so on (Veranda, 2013; Singh, 2000; Domestic Abuse Shelter of the Florida Keys, 2016). Notjumping into a particular model and treatment is not to be confused with therapists using the basic fundamentals of therapy to build rapport. Gehart (2014) asserts that it is crucial that clients feel heard and understood, and accepted by therapists without anyjudgment. Furthermore, that therapists be aware of their personal biases.
After assessing safety and current needs, therapists are urged to assess DV survivors for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) (Kubany, 2008). Various studies indicatethatvictims of chronic abuse are susceptible to trauma disorders. Johnson and Zlotnick’s ) study ((as cited in Symes, Maddoux, Mcfarlane & Pennings, 2016) consisting of 147 residents from a DV shelter revealed that 46.8 percent had PTSD. According to Griffing et al. (2006), many studies on DV also suggest that PTSD symptoms can increase the risk of revictimization. DV support groups and evidence based cognitive behavioral therapies along with Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) have all revealed to be effective for trauma work. One specific cognitive behavioral therapy that is specifically designed to treat battered women (cognitive trauma therapy) will be discussed further as well as implications for therapists when working with DV survivors belonging to the collectivist culture (Griffing et al., 2006).
Assessment. Due to victims being 75 percent more likely to be killed at the time they leave their abuser, it is crucial that mental health professionals first begin with an inquiry to assess for lethality; risk assessment (Battered Women’s Justice Project, 2018). Veranda (2013) notes that counselors should assess DV and to direct their attention at emergency measures such as, police assistance, shelters and legal intervention in DV with higher risks of lethality. Pagelow (as cited in Veranda, 2013) recommends general goals that therapists need to include as follows: an “immediate cessation of violence, awareness of and intervention in the pattern of escalation by the couple, improved problem-solving” (p. 145). For greater recovery, Pagelow further suggests that clients be provided with resources that are available to them which are of their preference along with interventions to help improve the women’s self-esteem (Veranda, 2013). Tewari, Inman, and Sandhu (as cited in Hays, 2008) note that when working with SAIs, during the assessment period, therapy can be more beneficial if each family member is met separately so that each member has the opportunity to express their thoughts and feelings. However, if the relationship is extremely volatile and the woman is afraid, Pagelow (as cited in Veranda, 2013) suggests that “therapists direct their attention on taking emergency measures such as police assistance, shelters and legal intervention” (p.145).
In situations where the client’s reason for staying in an abusive relationship is due to fear of deportation, Neighborhood Legal Services of Los Angeles County (2016) suggests that clients apply for a U-Visa to gain permanent residence in the U.S. In order to end the distress due to violence experienced by immigrant victims and their children, Singh (2000) indicates that the U.S. congress enacted the Violence Against Women Act in 1994. This act allows the victim to file a petition for an immigrant visa on behalf of herself as well as her children without the abusive spouse’s involvement. The other advantage to this act is that it can suspend any deportation proceedings for the victim. Singh urges mental health professional to assess thoroughly and document detailed notes of all psychological abuse the victim endured. “Documenting the stories of these victims is a first step to helping them receive the green cards, financial and emotional independence” (Singh, 2000 p.173).
Support groups for domestic violence. Yalom (2005) asserts group therapy as a “highly effective form of psychotherapy and that it is at least equal to individual psychotherapy in its power to provide meaningful benefit” (p. 1). He further introduces the reader to the therapeutic factors that are crucial when working in group settings. One of the factors Yalom talks about is universality. Yalom explains universality as people getting together and having something in common which provides members with a sense of relief from their isolation ( Yalom, 2005). Corey (2008) states that clients can benefit from group settings because the group process has distinctive learning advantages and also allows therapists to work with more clients which can be cost effective. Jacobs (2012) notes, “Support groups enable members to learn that other people struggle with the same problems, feel similar emotions, and think similar thoughts” (p-15).
According to Toseland and Rivas (2001), support groups can decrease a person’s sense of isolation, provide emotional support, and encourage healthy coping strategies to deal with stressful life events. Tutty, Bidgood, and Rothery (1993) point out that DV support groups are beneficial when working with victims ofDV as it allows them access to support. Moreover, by hearing other victims’ share their stories can help members to get clarity on the psychological abuse the batterer had subjected onto her. The researchers found that significant improvements for DV victims in regards to “self-esteem, belonging support, locus of control, less traditional attitudes towards marriage and the family, perceived stress, and marital functioning (Tutty et al., 1993, p. 325).
According to many DV experts such as Fry and Baker (2002) and Tutty et al. (1993), DV support groups tend to share the following characteristics: they are feminist informed, with the intent of reducing survivors’ self-blame and isolation, while increasing their self-esteem and selfefficacy. They include education around IPV and its effects, and focus on building social relationships as well as providing mutual suppor. Fry and Barker (2002) state that the underlying theory behind these groups is that abuse often results in women having distorted and overly negative perceptions of themselves (including shame, self-blame, sense of powerlessness). Because abusers often intentionally isolate their victims, the researchers contend that support groups can aid in breaking the isolation through the act of bringing survivors together. Survivors hearing each others’ stories, providing mutual help and support, and encouraging each others’ strengths can lead to increased self-esteem and self-efficacy (Fry & Barker, 2002). Sullivan (2012) reports that victims can now also choose to join groups that cater to “target specific populations of abused women (e.g., Asians, Latinas, gay) or ones that focus on particular circumstances such as, groups for women still in the relationship, or for women who are no longer being abused, but still seek support with dealing with the after effects” (p. 3).
Many experts assert that members can benefit from two leaders running a group (Tutty et.al., 1996; Jacobs, et al., 2012; Yalom, 2005). Furthermore, these researchers also note that, two leaders can provide stronger role models for support group participants. Having two leaders allows one to attend to content and the other to watch for group process, thus providing a more effective leadership team (Tutty et.al., 1996; Jacobs, etal., 2012; Yalom, 2005). Tutty, Bidgood and Rothery (1996) assert that monitoring attendance closely is a crucial factor when facilitating DV support groups. The researchers emphasize to therapists that absence can be warning signs. For example, women who are still living with abusive partners may experience interference from him with their plans to attend sessions. On the other hand, women who have left abusive relationships may be struggling to attend due to lack of child care, lack of transportation, or other similar barriers. Therefore facilitators should monitor attendance closely and make efforts to identify the reasons for non attendees (Tutty et al., 1996, p. 321).
Aside from emergency shelters, Tutty et al. (1996) assert that support groups represent the main intervention whereby women can learn what options they have to protect themselves and their children from further abuse. Support groups are ideal because they can provide easier access, are less costly, along with many other psychological benefits such as mutual shared experience, thus making victims feel less isolated as well as learning how to deal with barriers that can arise from the legal system, e.g., custody, visitation, divorce proceedings, seeing the abuser in court, and so on. (Fry & Barker, 2002; Jacobs, et al., 2012; Tutty et.al., 1996).
Treatment for PTSD. Although there are other traumas listed in the Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM-5) that DV survivors may experience, due to limitation of this discussion, the focus will be on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Symptoms ofPTSD have shown to be highly prevalent in survivors ofDV (Kubany, 2008). According to the National Center on Domestic Violence (2014) fact sheet, findings from various studies indicate that 80% of women who experienced rape, stalking, or physical violence by their intimate partner reported significant short or long term effects ofPTSD. Furthermore, women who have experienced IPV are three times more likely to meet the criteria for PTSD than their counter parts. The report also reveals that PTSD is associated with a higher risk of being susceptible to other mental health conditions as well (National Center on DV, p.2). Similarly, Jones, Hughes, and Unterstaller (2001) assert that PTSD diagnosed in battered women can co-occur with substance abuse, anxiety, depressive disorders as well as other traumas.
DV survivors who are diagnosed with PTSD often experience symptoms such as, insomnia, avoidance of the trauma reminders, nightmares, hyperarousal, and intrusive distressing memories of the trauma, loss of interest in previously enjoyable activities, and loss of concentration (American Psychiatric Association, 1994; PTSD: National Center for PTSD, 2012). As previously mentioned, there are many strength based modalities and trauma-focused psychotherapies. To name a few, some of the popular ones recommended by the National Center for PTSD (2012) include: Prolonged Exposure, Trauma Focused Cognitive Behavior Therapy, Cognitive Processing Therapy, and Eye-Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR). These evidence based models for the most part tend to include about eight to sixteen sessions (National Center for PTSD, 2018). While therapists can use various models when working with survivors of DV, this project’s focus will be on a cognitive behavioral therapy that yields promising results in treating PTSD symptoms as well as a range of other prominent issues that many DV survivors face. This model, Cognitive trauma therapy for battered women (CTT-BW), is further discussed.
Cognitive trauma therapy for battered women (CTT-BW). While existing cognitive behavioral treatments have shown favorable results in treating PTSD, Kubany and Ralston (2008) state that “battered women as a group forms one of the largest traumatized populations in North America” (p. 2). However, according to the Council on Scientific Affairs, American Medical Association (as cited in Kubany & Ralston, 2008), there were no published treatment- outcome studies that were exclusively targeting the improvement ofPTSD within this group. According to Kubany and Ralston (2008), several studies that addressed this concern utilized CTT-BW which revealed promising results. The first study by Kubany, Hill, and Owens revealed that “86 percent participants overcame their PTSD” and “self-esteem scores increased a mean of 92 percent” (Kubany & Ralston, 2008 p. 12). In their 2004 study, using a larger sample, Kubler, Hill and Owens established similar results where 87 percent of participants overcame their PTSD along with significant increase in self-esteem as well as large reductions in depression and guilt. The three and six-month follow up assessments for the 2004 study revealed similar results in comparison to the 2003 study where participants’ symptoms of PTSD, depression and anxiety were maintained. In regards to diversity, ethnic women also equally benefited to the treatment.
These two studies represent the first published studies of a therapeutic approach specifically designed to treat PTSD in survivors ofDV using CTT-BW (Kubany & Ralston).
Kubany and Ralston (2008) contend that the unique feature in this modality is that not only does it utilize several components from existing PTSD treatments, such as psychoeducation, stress management (i.e., relaxation exercises), and exposure, but CTT-BW also addresses other issues relevant to DV survivors. The researchers point out that this approach addresses issues such as self-advocacy strategies, managing stressful contact with former abuser, avoiding revictimizations and correcting problematic beliefs related to guilt, shame, and anger. The authors assert that therapists need to be mindful of the issues of guilt and shame that are unique to this population. For example, “failed” relationship or effects of violence on their children can create guilt and shame for DV survivors. The other suggestion is for therapists to be mindful of the issue ofDV survivors having to have contact with their former abuser due to custody issues or during visitations with their children in common which can be a frequent source of stress as well (Kubany & Ralston, 2008).
According to Kubany and Ralston (2008), the course of treatment in CTT-BW consists of 15 modules and one closing module which are used with all clients. Additionally, there are five optional modules that address issues that may possibly be less appropriate for other clients. Each session typically lasts fifty minutes. Depending on the client’s specific trauma, the number of sessions in each module can fluctuate. Apart for the modules on guilt (which can take four to five session), most modules in the approach require one to two session to complete (Kubany & Ralston, 2008).
There are many unique features in this direct approach that Kubany and Ralston (2008) highlight in their study. Along with building rapport for successful outcomes, therapists using CTT-BW firstly go over the Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire which is completed prior to the first session. Later specific homework assignments related to DV, self esteem, guilt, shame, and negative self-talk are assigned. Psycoeducation about PTSD and the rationale for exposure homework is addressed in module six. This module is beneficial in helping DV survivors learn that their symptoms are a normal response to extreme stress which can be reassuring and can decrease symptoms of avoidance. CTT-BW also encompasses two modules that are specifically allocated to stress management (Kubany & Ralston, 2008). These modules teach clients the importance of keeping one’s body relaxed. The use of Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) is introduced using scripted exercises by a trained therapist. PMR is also provided as a homework assignment where clients use an audio recording and practice for twenty minutes, twice a day for the duration of therapy. Therapists teach DV survivors how to systematically scan their body so that they are able to identify which major muscles tense up in response to stress (Kubany & Ralston, 2008).
Collectivist Orientation
Implications for therapists.
Sensitivity to their worldview. DV survivors that are none White, Wilson (2006) refers to as “women of color” (p. 120). Wilson points out that language difference, beliefs about marriage and the family, gender roles, and religious beliefs as being some of the cultural barriers that prevent women of color from leaving abusive relationships. In addition, Wilson cautions the reader that while these differences exist in women of color belonging to various groups, they also exist “among women from the same ethnic and racial groups” (Wilson, 2006 p. 121). For example, Abraham (2000) asserts that SAI women are expected to sacrifice their individual identity and needs to prioritize their fathers, husbands, in-laws, children, and community. However, the latter does not apply to all collectivists groups.
Lee’s (2015) research on Asian American women confirms that “divorce is commonly viewed as unacceptable, and women receive positive societal reinforcement for “enduring” violence for the sake of their families’ togetherness” (p.93). Haj-Yahia and Sadan (2008) note that collectivist society members are characterized by a sense of obligation to their collective community with a strong desire to help satisfy the needs and wishes of the people from their society. The researchers caution therapists to be culturally sensitive because the therapist can be viewed as interfering in their family affairs along with insensitivity and disrespect to their collective culture. Haj-Yahia’s (2011) study reveals that battered women from a collectivist culture seeking outside help such as therapy or legal assistance is often viewed by family members as undermining family harmony and threatening the intactness of the family. Intervening by outsiders especially Westerners can harm the good reputation of the woman, her nuclear family, her family of origin, and her collective group. Furthermore, the study notes that a battered woman who asserts her rights will be considered “rebellious,” “disobedient,” “selfish,” “not knowing how to show respect to her husband,” and “not being interested in protecting and preserving her own reputation and the reputation of her family” (Haj-Yahia, 2011, p.335). For these reasons, separating the couple can be challenging (Sharma, as cited in Nankini, 2001).
When working with couples from a collectivist culture, Knudsen-Martin and Mahoney (2009) state those therapists need to be aware that many of the couples are conditioned to think of themselves as part of the “we-group” (p.204). By validating a couple’s cultural strengths can help move the couple toward a more egalitarian relationship. For Pagelow (as cited in Veranda, 2013), working with couples experiencing violence, the general goals of therapy must include the following: “(a) an immediate cessation of violence, (b) awareness of and intervention in the pattern of escalation by the couple, (c) improved problem-solving abilities and (d) expanded marriage contracts and general decrease in relationship rigidity, sex roles, expectations and projection of hostility” (Veranda, 2013, p.145). Perez-Neira (2005) indicates thatHispanic women report a lack of culturally sensitive treatments. The researcher emphasizes a need for culturally sensitive, family oriented, and bilingual therapy sessions with providers who have some understanding of the Hispanic culture (Neira, 2005).
According to Comstock et al. (2008), relational-cultural theory (RCT) is a theoretical framework that can benefit women seeking help for DV. RCT compliments the multicultural/social justice movement. Issues related to sex role socialization, power, dominance, and marginalization can be explored through the use of this approach. According to Corey (2013), through the use of this feminist theory clients are reminded on how the traditional gender stereotypes greatly restrict her range of freedom. Enns (as cited in Corey, 2013) emphasizes that the goals therapists and clients set out need to be of "empowerment, valuing and affirming diversity, striving for change rather than adjustment, equality, balancing independence, and interdependence, self-nurturance” (p. 370).
Knudson-Martin and Mahoney (2009) argue that the lack of studies along with the generalized comparisons, can impact treatment in a therapeutic setting if the therapist is not knowledgeable on the worldview of a client from a collectivist culture. Shin (2015) suggests that clinicians use a framework called the cultural context model to target issues associated with oppression and privilege in a clinical context. Hays (2008) emphasizes that after carefully assessing the “client’s thoughts, feelings, behaviors, physical symptoms, and environment in relation to the present problem” (p. 191), therapist consider the use of culturally responsive cognitive behavior therapy (CR- CBT). Because CR-CBT involves problem solving, Hays, argues that this approach helps in fostering cognitive restructuring. The first step involves defining which part of the client’s presenting problem is primarily environmental and which is internal. Clarifying this issue early can prevent therapists from improperly or too quickly moving into cognitive restructuring. Therapists moving too quickly, “can be interpreted as blaming the individual, when the real problem may be an abusive relationship” (Hays, 2008, p. 195).
Victims experiencing DV can benefit by therapists taking into account the discussed approaches. Moreover, according to Chadda and Deb (2013), it is crucial that therapists understand that in collectivistic societies, the concepts of self, attitudes, values and boundaries are defined differently from those of the Western philosophy. Furthermore, as suggested by many articles analyzed in this study, therapists must be culturally sensitive, be aware of their biases, and refrain from lumbering the collectivist culture with assumptions that may not apply to another collectivist culture. For example, when working with a woman belonging to the SAI group, according to Sharma and Pathak (2015), therapists must be knowledgeable that the Indian culture consists of ajoint family system, patriarchy, where a marriage is a must and a permanent union. Furthermore, preference for the male child, practice of dowry, strict code of conduct for females, and primary roles of women being childbearing and child rearing are prominent along with women holding subservient status of daughter-in-laws (Sharma & Pathak, 2015).
Conclusion
This review of the research indicates that much of the literature regarding DV is based on small, qualitative studies which are not representative samples regarding ethnic women (women of color). The studies on DV are conducted with minority groups frequently combined into one and then compared to Whites (Tjaden and Thoennes, 2000). The analyses of studies reveal that there are many barriers that keep victims trapped in DV relationships. However, in regards to colored women, the added barriers are language, holding traditional patriarchal cultural values, having no family support, and being less acculturated, as well as fear of deportation. The analysis further reveals that therapists need to be mindful of the considerable differences in various worldviews when working with victims belonging to a collectivist culture. Apart from the cultural discourse of prioritizing the group needs over individual needs, gender socialization is a major factor that helps in preserving patriarchy in the SAI community, which this study believes is the root ofDV. The analysis aligns with this study’s hypothesis that while gender socialization through the use of religion, cultural norms, as well as specific traditions are experienced by individuals as fun festivities, are actually consisting of strong hidden messages. In regards to SAIs, these hidden messages socialize females and males to believe that females are the weaker of the two species, while the males are the dominate privileged specie who should be worshipped, honored, and obeyed.
Future research is necessary on the SAI women experiencing DV in the U.S. using larger samples and with the measure of arrange marriage vs. love marriage i.e., her choosing her partner. A very small number of studies are available regarding this issue. It would be beneficial to learn whether a woman choosing her partner would be more open to divorce due to her progressive thinking, or more likely to endure abuse due to her disregarding her family’s choice. Moreover, would her family support her or reject her for her not following the cultural norm of an arranged marriage. Further studies also need to address effects of trauma experienced by this group of women globally. Dowry as a measure for DV in the U.S. has minimal research and needs to be utilized in future studies. Patriarchy being maintained through socialization and traditions that are gender specific within a particular culture such as the SAI group needs to be explored as well as DV in same-sex relationship in the SAI community.
Due to limitations of studies and SAI women not reporting DV due to cultural restraints, it is imperative that clinicians are equipped to work with this population as this may be the only resource she has in accessing safety.
Implications for Project
In order to better equip mental health professionals in the United States to work with victims ofDV with particular emphasis placed on South Asian Indian victims, it is important to review the pertinent workshop, which will be described in the following chapter.
Chapter III
Project Development and Format
Introduction
The current chapter will introduce the development of a workshop to inform interns entering the mental health profession about domestic violence (DV) with the added emphasis of cultural sensitivity to South Asian Indian women (SAI) and other women belonging to similar collectivist belief systems i.e., colored women or minority and ethnic women. This workshop would function as a guide that can be presented before fieldwork starts so that interns are better equipped to handle DV cases at their training sites. The author prefers the term DV over intimate partner violence (IPV) due to colored women, in particular SAIs, having a history of being abused by their in-laws as well as their husbands which has been discussed in chapter two of this study. Furthermore, because IPV is not restricted to the couple only as it affects the couple’s immediate family, extended family, children, neighbors, co-workers as well as the community.
In regards to SAI women, IPV is already limited to a personal, domestic problem where family and friends are afraid to intervene, this study is seeking to raise awareness to this epidemic so that IPV is openly discussed in the community as well outside so that SAI women have more resources and less barriers.
Project Development
Having witnessed a lack of understanding and empathy amongst counselors through working at various training sites as well as outside of the work realm when it came to victims of DV, had me ponder on as to why this was so. The core for the lack of compassion was stemming from the counselors lack of knowledge in DV as well as their biases which falls under that famous question of, “why does she [victims] stay?” Statements such as, “she can leave if she really wanted to” or “DV clients are so annoying because they are always late or don’t show up for their appointments,” reveals that these counselors need more training when working with DV victims. I could relate to these counselors because I too carried those biases and was not aware of all the barriers that are imposed on these victims. However, I had a head start due to having taken a class which covered DV during my undergrad program and then further volunteering at a shelter where I was required to do 40 hours of DV training.
Intended Audience
This workshop is aimed to be presented to therapists coming from any ethnic group, gender, and socioeconomic status. The attendees must either be licensed clinicians in the field of mental health or a student enrolled in a master’s program such as, Marriage and Family Therapy (MFT), social work, or psychology in the state of California. The group will be a closed group consisting of no more than 12 therapists who will be permitted to attend future workshops as well. It is highly recommended that counselors that are planning on working with the DV population also obtain a 40 hour DV training certificate from a list of reputable facilities that will be provided at the end of the workshop.
Environment and Equipment
The location of the proposed workshop will be at an accessible location with adequate parking such as a community mental health agency, a church, a local school, or a DV shelter which can accommodate comfortable seating for 12 counselors. Furthermore, the room will be located so that there are no outside distractions for concentration purposes as well as for confidentiality purposes. Verbal explanation of expectations and responsibilities ofbeing in the group will be covered as well as in written consent forms. The room will be situated in a safe location with easy access for any attendees that may have physical limitations. Supplies needed for interventions to be used for attendees during group activities as well as handouts will all be provided. Strength United in Van Nuys, CA. will be utilized as an example.
Project Outline
General overview of the group. The workshop will be a weekend workshop which will consist of two days (Saturday and Sunday). It is a closed group. However, it will be ongoing with new or returning members every third weekend of each month. All attendees must register and pay in full 48 hours prior to the workshop days in order to be guaranteed a spot. The maximum capacity isl2 trainees and/or interns in the mental health profession. Lunch will not be provided, however, snacks and water will be provided both days. Attendees can bring their own lunch or go out to eat. There are many restaurants and places to near the agency.
Aim and purpose. Gain general awareness such as the history and prevalence of domestic violence, cycle of violence, power and control tactics, barriers that prevent victims from leaving abusive relationship, and cultural impact on women belonging to a collectivist culture, particularly South Asian Indian women. The workshop does not provide CEU credits.
Available time and location. The two day workshop will be held in a conference room at Strength United located at 14651 Oxnard St, Van Nuys, CA 91411. The workshop will begin at 9am and finish at 5pm. There will be two 15-minute breaks and a one hour lunch break.
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Chapter IV
Discussion
Summary of Project
The purpose of this project was to create a workshop which highlights the barriers encompassed by survivors of domestic violence (DV). It is important for mental health professionals to be aware of the barriers that originally keep victims trapped in their abusive relationship, and also the barriers that form after their escape. The hope is that after the completion of the workshop, attendees will leave better equipped to provide services for DV survivors in general as well as survivors belonging to the collectivist belief system, in particular South Asian Indians (SAI). This goal can be achieved if therapists move away from the traditional training of first deciding on a therapeutic model or approach to adhere to. Instead, therapists need to take the Rogerian approach of unconditional regard to build a strong therapeutic alliance along with prioritizing safety and assessing lethality. Since culture can determine what behavior is permitted or punished, it is essential for professional clinicians to become aware of the different cultural perspectives on DV as well (Singh, 2001 as cited in Nankani, 2001). Singh’s suggestion aligns with DV experts who propose that therapists first and most need to have a better understanding of what the barriers are instead ofjumping into a treatment based on the protocol of their preferred model. The crucial component that this study is hopeful for is that therapists prioritize the urgency to assess the victim’s lethality so that victims are provided with the resources that they are currently in dire of, such as shelters, legal support, safety planning, etc. I hope this research will contribute to therapists’ knowledge and understanding ofDV with special attention given to SAI women.
Facilitator’s Disclosure
As a Punjabi, Sikh woman belonging to the South Asian Indian community, I have witnessed an array of abuse amongst SAI women. Although, I considered myself to be a feminist-progressive woman, I myself became vulnerable to DV and did not notice the signs because it did not lead to physical abuse. Like many, I only consider it to be abuse if it was sexual or physical. I only became aware of this when I went back to school and DV was covered intensely in one of elected courses in my undergrad program. This experience revealed to me the barriers that are so well hidden in abusive relationships. Furthermore, I realized that I myselfhad been in a DV relationship where the abuse was stemming from my husband’s parents.
I had met my husband in England at age 21. In regards to an arranged marriage, we were a good match for the most part except for my family belonging to a higher socioeconomic status as well as my future husband’s family all consisting of blue collar jobs and no higher education. Because I stepped out of the norm and was the first in my lineage to have had a love marriage placed me in a more vulnerable position. This vulnerability’s root was stemming from going against my parent’s wishes by staying firm in marrying my husband at any cost. Even though choosing of my partner was a progressive decision, I followed the traditional norms and moved to England to reside with my in-laws. I gave up my home, country, family and friends to be with my husband at the mere age of23.1 worked hard to obtain their acceptance, but that approval never happened while I resided in England for over eight years.
His parents not having had chosen me for their only son who was born after three daughters would complain, nitpick, mock, and critique me as well as complain to my husband. Verbal abuse and isolation had taken affect at the very beginning of the marriage. However, I had no idea. The more they criticized me, the harder I tried to have their approval to the degree where I would not allow my husband to intervene. I was yearning for their acceptance because I had been taught to believe that a “girl’s real home is with her husband.” Furthermore, because I had begged my father to allow me to marry my husband, I could not face my family if my marriage were to fail. Due to the guilt I carried for not allowing my parents to arrange my marriage and the expense of my lavish wedding, I could not contemplate leaving U.K. Moreover, because of the dishonor and shame that a potential divorce would bring to my natal family.
While I lived in England, my husband’s three older sisters and extended family provided me with no emotional support or in rearing of my children. I only had the support of my British White friends whom I had met after my children started nursery. I was fortunate than many SAI women because I had been raised in America so language was not a barrier. In addition, even though I grew up with some strict traditional gender roles, independence for women was highly promoted in my natal family, and I was treated quite equally to my brothers. The latter reasons helped me in not to submit to the point of enduring physical violence. The very first incident when my mother-in-law tried to hit me, I called the police as well as my father-in-law. However, I did not proceed with filing a report.
After being in an environment of verbal abuse and the impact it could possibly have on my children, I broke my silence to my mother. She being a very progressive woman especially for a woman having had no education in India, told me I had to come back home. Moreover, she assured me that if my husband did not follow, she would provide me with all the support I needed i.e., emotional and financial. Not many women are as lucky as I, which is a major factor in me wanting to advocate for women trapped in DV relationships.
Through my family’s support, I was able to move back to the U.S. in 1996. Looking back, as an American SAI woman who was quite progressive, while living in England for so many years, I had started to lose myself i.e., my core values and beliefs as well as my self esteem due to isolation created by my in-laws. It took great courage for me to leave England and start a new life which was only possible because I had one hundred percent support from my family. Due to this support, I was able to stay strong and not go back to the abusive relationship. Instead my stance led my husband to follow me to live in America. Many women with legal and financial barriers as well as no support from family end up having to return to their abusive relationships. The verbal abuse I endured did not escalate to the level the victims that are seen for counseling or this author has witnessed or studied. Again, it is partially due to my family’s support, language not being a barrier for me, and more importantly my husband not abusing me.
Having had gone through my own abusive experience, witnessing celebrations of many traditions, as well as myths and rituals that I either participated in or witnessed that signal male importance are as follows: Lohri for our son, and not our daughters; Rakhri to celebrate having brothers for protection, therefore pray for their longevity; Karva Chauth to fast and pray for longevity for husbands which I only witnessed but never participated in; a hefty dowry provided by my parents for my marriage as well as my husband and I providing it for his sister’s children; groom’s side arriving with an extravagant entrance and only the males greet each other. The women greet each other from both families as well but the greeting is performed with no spectators and usually squeezed in at some point during the reception party; touching of in-laws- feet; females not being able to touch certain foods or being able to attend temples while menstruating; wives not allowed to address their husband by his name; a weekly reminder of importance of males (which my household did not practice) is brilliantly executed through telling girls they cannot wash their hair on a Thursday (Veervaar). Washing the hair can bring bad luck to brothers due to the name of the day beginning with ‘veer’ which translates to brother; being told by in-laws that I cannot do a first birthday celebration for my daughter after they had a venue consisting of over 300 people for my son who was born one year earlier; not only a bride’s first name is changed but her first name as well, which is not very common in the new generation. However, it was the norm in the generation prior to mine. My mother’s name was changed from Jarnail to Tej which simply means fast, while her original name had a sensitive meaning because it matched with her brother’s name; importance placed on fertility and male births, and myself witnessing mistreatment of women who could not bear sons; witnessing women try all sorts of antidotes to birth a son as well as a few women from my extended family who aborted females through the means of finding out its sex; The list of my experiences is not practiced in all of India but do overlap with many other groups within the SAI community and is not spoken about. These traditions and rituals that promote male dominance is the driving force for me to try and bring about change in my community as well as train therapists, especially American therapists, on how to better build a therapeutic alliance when working with SAI survivors of DV.
As a marriage and family therapist trainee, I have had the opportunity to complete practicum hours at non-profit community-based agencies. I have been able to utilize my training from my program to benefit clients when it came to mental health disorders, diagnosis, and therapeutic interventions, along with many other skills. Unfortunately, due to the time allocated for graduate programs to be completed, most programs dedicate minimal hours to DV in required courses, such as Couples Counseling. While I was fortunate enough to have been mentored and supervised by a leading expert in the field ofDV, Gail Pincus at my training site, most of my peers were not. Through my research and Gail, I have come to realize that it is crucial that therapists be knowledgeable of the power and control tactics batterers use while the victim is in the abusive relationship, and after she builds the courage to finally leave him. Additionally, the therapists need to be aware of barriers that the legal system places on the survivor while she is trying to move forward especially those with children in common with the batterer.
The last factor I’d like to address regarding personal experience is that after being involved in helping DV victims for several years by either volunteering at a shelter or training at various sites, I have only come across one SAI woman who sought help in comparison to hundreds ofDV victims belonging to other ethnic groups. This was very alarming to me and therefore, it is my goal to be an active member in my community to raise awareness and provide resources for victims of DV in the SAI community as well as training American therapists on how to better help this group of women.
Recommendations for Implementation
It is the intent and recommendation that this project be used as a general guideline for therapists to gain knowledge and more insight to the barriers that prevent DV victims in leaving their abusive partner. I accidentally fell into this wealth of knowledge as I took a class during my bachelors program at CSUN. My awakening to the cruelty that these women are subjected to occurred in my sociology class with Professor Vicki Jensen. I recall crying after watching a powerful presentation on DV. When my professor asked if I wanted to share my experience/reaction, I replied that I felt awful because for the most part of my life Ijudged women that stayed in abusive relationship. My assumption like many was that it must not be so bad because she doesn’t leave. You see, I had the attitude that America is a free country and there is no need for women to stay in abusive relationships; that it is a choice. It is my hope that that all therapists will have the same epiphany as I did. My experience has led me to become an activist in helping the women in my local area as well as raising awareness and helping the women in my SAI community as well.
Recommendation for Future Research
Although there is abundance of information on domestic violence (DV), further research is necessary on specific group members from the collectivist ideologies that have been exposed to DV i.e., the SAI community. The literature discussed in chapter two reveals that the South Asian Indian community is quiet complex. A variety of customs and societal norms socialize children at a very young age that women are subordinate to men. However, this gender socialization which assists in maintaining patriarchy can differ in degrees according to the groups within the SAI community as well the range of groups belonging to other collectivist cultures. Within the SAI group, there are further complexities, such as protocols for each caste system and religion. For example, according to Wilson (2006) India alone has sixteen official languages and hundreds of dialects that lie within each of those languages. In regards to religion, Wilson reports that Hinduism is the most popular religion in India, however, Christianity, Islam, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Sufism, Zoroastrianism, and Judaism are also openly practiced (Wilson, 2006), all of which make barriers even more complex for SAI women to seek help.
Future research is necessary on the SAI women experiencing DV in the U.S. based on whether her marriage was arranged or if it was her choice i.e., love marriage. Only a small number of studies were available regarding this issue. It would be beneficial to learn whether a woman choosing her partner is placed in greater danger of enduring abuse to her counterpart who agreed to an arranged or forced marriage. Further studies also need to address effects of trauma experienced by SAI women as well as current studies on DV in America. Much of the research on dowry is from weddings that take place in India. It would be valuable to see future studies using dowry as a measure in American SAI weddings as well as a measure for traditional festivities that cements patriarchy.
Conclusion
Along with barriers to leaving an abusive relationship, it is also important that therapists become aware that dynamics of a DV relationship is a learned behavior that men and women have gained through their experiences within their cultures. Through male privilege and learned behavior via modeling, the batterer has learned how to become successful in controlling his victim. She on the other hand, through the same process, has learned how to be a victim i.e., learned helplessness. Bancroft (2002) asserts that “This learning continues throughout their childhood and adolescence” (p. 320). Gender socialization through cultural norms has great impact on the behaviors of both parties. In regards to working with SAI victims, it is crucial that therapists are aware of the victims’ cultural restraints. The lack of studies along with the generalized comparisons can impact treatment in a therapeutic setting if the therapist is not knowledgeable on the worldview of a client from a collectivist culture (Knudson-Martin & Mahoney, 2009).
The analyses of studies reveal that there are many barriers that keep victims trapped in DV relationships. However, in regards to colored women, the added barriers are language, holding traditional patriarchal cultural values, having no family support, and being less acculturated, as well as fear of deportation. The analysis further reveals that therapists need to be mindful of the considerable differences in various worldviews when working with victims belonging to a collectivist culture. Apart from the cultural discourse of prioritizing the group needs over individual needs, gender socialization is a major factor that helps in preserving patriarchy in the SAI community, which this study believes is the root of DV.
References
Addon, A. (2003). Gender inequality and patriarchy in the Cordilleras: A fact? Or a myth? (Voices). Igorota, 17(4), 20.
Abraham, M. (2000). Speaking the unspeakable: Marital violence among South Asian fimmigrants in the United States. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Ahmed, S. Wilson, K. Henriksen Jr., S. & Jones, J. (2011). What does it mean to be a culturally- competent counselor? Journal for Social Action in Counseling and Psychology, 3, 17-28. Retrieved March 24, 2018 from http://www.psysr.org/jsacp/ahmed-v3nl-l l_17-28.pdf
American Psychiatric Association [APA], (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Anderson, S., (2003). Why dowry payments declined with modernization in Europe but are rising in India. Journal of Political Economy, 111(2), 269-310.
Bancroft, L. (2002). Why does he do that? Inside the minds of angry and controlling men. New York: NY. Berkley Books.
Banerjee, J. (2018). Cultural imperialism or rescue? The British and Suttee. Retrieved on February 15, 2018 from http://www.victorianweb.org/history/empire/india/suttee.html
Battered Women’s Justice Project. (2018). Integrating risk assessment. Retrieved on February 20, 2018 from http://www.bwjp.org/our-work/topics/risk-assessment.html
Bedi, S. S. (2006). Folklore of Punjab. New Delhi, India: National Book Trust, India.
Bhalla, K. S. (2005). Let's know festivals of India. New Delhi: StarPublications.
Bonilla-Santiago, G. (2002). Latina battered women: Barriers to service delivery and cultural considerations. In A. R. Roberts (Ed.), Handbook of domestic violence intervention strategies: Policies, programs, and legal remedies (pp. 464-471). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
British Broadcasting Company [BBC]. (2014). Religions - Hinduism: Raksha Bandhan (Rakhi).Retrieved March 3,2018 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/holydays/raksha.shtml Bui, H., & Morash, M. (2008). Immigration, masculinity, and intimate partner violence from the standpoint of domestic violence service providers and Vietnamese-origin women. Feminist Criminology, 3(3), 191-215.
Chadda, R. , & Deb, K. (2013. Indian family systems, collectivistic society and psychotherapy. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(suppl 2), S299.
Comstock, D. L., Hammer, T. R, Strentzsch, J., Cannon, K., Parsons, J., & Salazar, G. II. (2008). Relational-cultural theory: A framework for bridging relational, multicultural, and socialjustice competencies. Journal of Counseling and Development: JCD, 86(3), 279-287.
Corey, G. (2013). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole/Cengage Learning.
Corey, G. (2008). Theory & vipractice of group counseling. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning.
Cunradi, C. B. (2009). Intimate partner violence among Hispanic men and women: The role of drinking, neighborhood disorder, and acculturation-related factors. Violence and Victims Violence, 24(1), 83-97.
Dasgupta, S. D. (2000). Changing the course: An overview of domestic violence in the South Asian community in the United States. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 9, 173-185.
Dasgupta, S., & Warrier, S. (1996). In the footsteps of “Arundhati”: Asian Indian women's experience of domestic violence in the United States. Violence Against Women, 2(3), 238-259.
Diwan, P. (1983). Family law: Law of marriage and divorce in India. New Delhi, India: Sterling Publishers Private Limited
Domestic Abuse Shelter of the Florida Keys. (2016). About DAS. Retrieved on March 3, 2018 from http://www.domesticabuseshelter.org/InfoDomesticViolence.htm
Domesticshelters.org. (2016). Domestic violence (The Barriers for South Asian Survivors). Retrieved onMarch 15, 2018 from https://www.domesticshelters.org/domestic-violence- articles-information/the-barriers-for-south-asian-survivors.
Domestic Violence Council. (2011). The domestic violence victim’s handbook: It shouldn’t hurt to go home Retrieved March 24, 2018 from http://dvcouncil.lacounty.gov/cmsl_134557.pdf
Domestic Violence Handbook, (2015). Domestic violence should not happen to anybody...ever...period! Retrieved May, 2018 from http://domesticviolence.org/cycle-of- violence/
Dupree, W. J., Bhakta, K., Patel, P., & Dupree, D. (2013). Developing culturally competent marriage and family therapists: Guidelines for working with Asian Indian American couples. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 41(A), 311-329.
Durve, A. (2012). The power to break free: surviving domestic violence: with a special reference to abuse in Indian marriages. Cleveland, OH: Power Press LLC.
Family Crisis Center. (2010) Building brighter tomorrows, the Ccycle of violence. (2010). Retrieved May 2018, from http://www.1736familycrisiscenter.org/pdf/Cycle of Violence_v3.pdf
Fry, P.S. & Barker, L.A. (2002). Female survivors of abuse and violence: The influence of storytelling reminiscence of perceptions of self-efficacy, ego strength, and self esteem. In J. D. Webster & B.K. Haight (Eds.), Critical advances in reminiscence work: From theory to application (pp. 197-217). New York, NY: Springer.
Gehart, D. (2014). Mastering competencies in family therapy: A practical approach to theories and clinical case documentation. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Pub.
George, S.M. (2005). When women come first: Gender and class in transnational migration. Berkley, CA: University of California Press.
George, S. M. (2001). When women come first: Gender and class and transnational ties among Indian immigrants in the United States. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved May 2018, from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global: The Humanities and Social Sciences Collection. (Accession Order No. 304683955).
Gondolf, E. (1998). Appreciating diversity among battered women. In E. W. Gondolf (Ed.), Assessing woman battering in mental health services (pp. 113-131). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Griffing, S., Lewis, C.S., Chu, M., Sage, R.E., Madry, L., & Primm, B.J. (2006). Exposure to interpersonal violence as a predictor ofPTSD symptomatology in domestic violence survivors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(1"), 936-954.
Harne, L., & Radford, J. (2008). Tackling domestic violence: Theories, policies and practice. Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press.
Hays, P. (2008). Addressing cultural complexities in practice. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Henning, K., & Klesges, U. (2002). Utilization of counseling and supportive services by female victims of domestic abuse, Violence and Victims, 17(5), 623-636.
Hinojosa, M. (2011). Acculturation, intimate partner violence and cultural constructs in young Hispanic women. (Doctoral dissertation). RetrievedMay 2018, from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global: The Humanities and Social Sciences Collection. (Accession OrderNo. 3019653).
Haj-Yahia, M. (2011). Contextualizing interventions with battered women in collectivist societies: Issues and controversies.Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16(4), 331-339.
Haj-Yahia, M., & Sadan, E. (2008). Issues in intervention with battered women in collectivist societies. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 34(1), 1-13.
Hoeffel, E. M., Rastogi, S., Kim, M. O., & Shahid, H. (2012, March). The Asian population: 2010 census briefs. Retrieved April/May 2018, from https://www.census.gov/ prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-ll.pdf
Hopton, J. L., & Huta, V. (2013). Evaluation of an intervention designed for men who were abused in childhood and are experiencing symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(3), 300-313. doi:10.1037/a0029705 p.30.
Indiana Coalition Against Domestic Violence [ICADV], (2018.). Retrieved March 2, 2018 from http://www.icadvinc.org/
Jacobs, E. E., & Jacobs, E. E. (2012). Group counseling: Strategies and skills. Australia: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning.
Jones, L., Huges, M., & Unterstaller, U. (2001). Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in victim of domestic violence. A review of the research. Trauma, Violence and Abuse, 2, 99-119.
Katz, J. (2012). Violence against women-it's a men's issue. Retrieved March 26, 2016, from http://www.ted.com/talks/jackson_katz_violence_against_women_it_s_a_men_s_issue71a nguage=en
Kaur Life. (2016). Domestic violence in South Asian families. Retrieved on February 12, 2018 from https://kaurlife.org/2014/09/08/domestic-violence-sikh-families/
Kaur, R., & Garg, S. (2008). Addressing domestic violence against women: An unfinished agenda. Indian Journal of Community Medicine: Official Publication of Indian Association of Preventive & Social Medicine, 33(2), 73-76.
Kilbourne, J. (2012). Slim hopes: Advertising and the obsession with thinness. Retrieved March 25, 2016, from http://www.jeankilbourne.com/videos/
Kilbourne, J. (2012). The killing screens: Media and the culture of violence. Retrieved March 25, 2016, from http://www.jeankilbourne.com/videos/
Knox, D., & Schacht, C. (2010). Choices in relationships: An introduction to marriage and family. Australia: Wadsworth.
Knudson-Martin, C., & Mahoney, A. R. (2009). Couples, gender, and power: Creating change in intimate relationships. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.
Kubany, E., Abueg, S., Owens, F., Brennan, R., Kaplan, J., & Watson, A. (1995). Initial examination of a multidimensional model of trauma-related guilt: Applications to combat veterans and battered women. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 77(4), 353-376.
Kubany, E. S., Hill, E. E., & Owens, J. A. (2003). Cognitive trauma therapy for battered women withPTSD: preliminary findings. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 76(1), 81-91.
Kubany, E., Hill, E., Owens, J., Iannce-Spencer, C., McCaig, M., Tremayne, K.,... Sobell, M. (2004). Cognitive trauma therapy for battered women with PTSD (CTT-BW). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(1), 3-18.
Kubany, E. S., & Ralston, T. C. (2008). Treating PTSD in battered women: A step-by-step manual for therapists and counselors. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.
Lee, M. Y. (2002). Asian battered women. In A. R. Roberts (Ed.), Handbook of domestic violence intervention strategies: Policies, programs, and legal remedies (pp. 472-482). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Liao, M. (2006). Domestic violence among Asian Indian immigrant women: Risk factors, acculturation, and intervention. Women & Therapy, 29(1-2), 23-39.
Makama, G. A. (2013). Patriarchy and gender inequality in Nigeria: The way forward. European Scientific Journal, 9(17), 115.
Mock, M.R., & Baima, T.R. (2015). Men and the family life cycle. In B. Carter & M.
McGoldrick (Eds.). The expanded family life cycle: Individual, family, and social perspectives, (pp.63-75). NewYork, NY: Pearson.
Morash, M., Bui, M., & Santiago, A. (2000). Gender specific ideology of domestic violence in Mexican origin families. International Review of Victimology, 7, 67-91.
Nankani, S. (2000). Breaking the silence. Domestic violence in the South Asian-American community: An anthology. Philadelphia, PA: Xlibris.
National Center on Domestic Violence, Trauma & Mental Health. (2014) Current evidence: Intimate partner violence, trauma-related mental health conditions & chronic illness. Retrieved March 25, 2018 from http://www.nationalcenterdvtraumamh.org/wp- content/uploads/2014/10/FactSheet_IPVTraumaMHChronicIllness_2014_Final.pdf National Center. (2012). PTSD: National Center for PTSD. Retrieved May 03, 2018 from https://www.ptsd.va.gov/
National CoalitionAgainstDomesticViolence. [NCADV], (2016). Statistics. RetrievedMarch 14, 2018 from http://ncadv.org/learn-more/statistics National Domestic Hotline. (2018). What is domestic violence? Retrieved May 07, 2018 from http://www.thehotline.org/is-this-abuse/abuse-defined/
National Women’s History Project. (2018). Detailed timeline. Retrieved March 3, 2018 from http://www.nwhp.org/resources/womens-rights-movement/detailed-timeline/ Neighborhood Services of Los Angeles County [NLSLA], (2016). Retreieved May 11, 2018, from http://www.nlsla.org/services/
Nesbitt, E. (1993). Gender and religious tradition: The role-learning of British Hindu children. Gender and Education, 5(1), 81-91.
Network of Care Solano County, California. (2018). Facts on immigrant women and domestic violence (2018). Retrieved on February 10, 2018 from http://solano.networkofcare.org/dv/library/article, aspx? id=1042 Northnode, Inc. (2008). Domestic Violence Training for New Staff and Volunteers. Retrieved March 12, 2018, fromhttp://www.healthrecovery.org/images/products/34_full.pdf Perez-Neira, D. (2006). Abused immigrant Latina women’s perspectives on mental health services: A phenomenological study. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved May 2018, from ProQuestDissertations & Theses Global. (Accession Order No. 3222556).
Rait, S. K. (2005). Sikh women in England: Their religious and cultural beliefs and social practices. Trent, UK: Trentham Books.
Rao, V.P., and Rao, V. N. (1983). Marriage, the family, and women in India. Irvine, CA; Printox: South Asia Books
Raj, A., & Silverman, J. (2012). Violence against immigrant women: The roles of culture, context, and legal immigrant status on intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 8(3), 367-398.
Roberts, A.R.,& Roberts, B. S. (2005). Ending intimate abuse: Practical guidance and survival strategies. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Roy, S. (2015). Empowering women? Inheritance rights, female education and dowry payments in India. Journal of Development Economics, 114(C), 233-251.
SafeNetwork: California's Domestic Violence Resource. (1999) Herstory of domestic violence: A timeline of the battered Wwomen's movement. Retrieved March 10, 2018 from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download? doi=10.1.1.208.6955&rep=repl&type=pdf
Sharma, I., & Pathak, A. (2015). Women mental health in India. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 57(Suppl 2), S201-S204. http://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.161478
Shin, R. Q. (2015). The application of critical consciousness and intersectionality as tools for decolonizing racial/ethnic identity development models in the fields of counseling and psychology. Retrieved March 3, 2018 from file:///C:/Users/Raj/Downloads/9781493912827-cl%20(2).pdf
Singh, A. (2017). Women, wealth and law: Anglo-Hindu and Anglo-Islamic inheritance law in British India. South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 40(1), 40-53.
Singh, R. (1999). Wife burning: Cultural cues for lethal violence against women among Asian Indians in the United States. Violence Against Women, 5(6), 641-653.
Singh, K. K. (2001). Negotiating the institutional maze: How professional clinicain can help battered immigrant women apply for green cards. In S. Nankani (Ed.), Breaking the silence: Domestic violence in the South Asian-American community (pp.172-187). New York, NY: Xlibris Corp
Society for the Confluence of Festivals in India [SCFI], (2018). Lohri festival: Celebration of fertility. Retrieved March 3, 2018 from http://www.lohrifestival.org/celebration-of- fertility.html
South Asian Americans Reading Together [SAAFT], (2015). A demographic snapshot of South Asians in the United States. Retrieved on March 14, 2018 from http://saalt.org/wp- content/uploads/2016/01/Demographic-Snapshot-updated_Dec-2015.pdf
Symes, F., Maddoux, J., Mcfarlane, J., & Pennings, J. (2016). A risk assessment tool to predict sustained PTSD symptoms among women reporting abuse. Journal of Women's Health, 25(4), 34-347
Sprenkle, D. H. and Blow, A. J. (2004), Common factors and our sacred models. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 30(2), 113-129.
Sue, D. W. (2004). Whiteness and ethnocentric monoculturalism: Making the "invisible" visible. The American Psychologist, 59(8), 761-769.
Sullivan, C.M., (2012). Support groups for women with abusive partners: A review of the empirical evidence. Retrieved March 3,2018 from the Domestic Violence Evidence Project:https://www.dvevidenceproject.org/wpcontent/themes/DVEProject/files/research/ DVSupportGroupResearchSummaryl0-2012.pdf
Swami, V., Coles, R, Wilson, E., Salem, N., Wyrozumska, K., & Furnham, A. (2010). Oppressive beliefs at play: Associations among beauty ideals and practices and individual differences in sexism, objectification of others, and media exposure. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34(3), 365-379
Thomas, M. L. (2006). The contributing factors of change in a therapeutic process. Contemporary Family Therapy, 28(2), 201-210.
Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). Extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence: Findings from the national violence against women survey. Retrieved March 20, 2016 from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffilesl/nij/181867.pdf
Toseland, R.W., Rivas, R.F., (2011),An introduction to group work practice (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Tran, C. G., Des Jardins, K. (2000). Domestic violence in Vietnamese refugee and Korean immigrant communities. In J. L. Chin (Ed.), Relationships among Asian American women: Psychology of women (pp. 71-96). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Torres, S., Campbell, J., Campbell, D.W., Ryan, J., King, C., Price, P.,...Laude, M. (2000). Abuse during and before pregnancy: Prevalence and cultural correlates. Violence and Victims, 15(3), 303-321.
Tutty, L., Bidgood, B. & Rothery, M. A. (1993). Support groups for battered women: Research on their efficacy. Journal of Family Violence, 5(4), 325-343.
Tutty, L.M., Bidgood, B.A., & Rothery, M.A. (1996). Evaluating the effect of group process and client variables in support groups for battered women. Research on Social Work Practice, 6(3), 308-324.
U.S. Immigration and Citizenship Services. (2016). Victims of criminal activitymonimmigrant status.. Retrieved May 11, 2016, from https://www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/victims- human-trafficking-other-crimes/victims-criminal-activity-u-nonimmigrant-status/victims- criminal-activity-u-nonimmigrant-status
U.S. Department of Justice. (2016). Domestic violence. Retrieved February 3, 2018 from https://www.justice.gov/ovw/domestic-violence
U.S. Department ofVeterans Affair, National Center. (2012). Intimate partner violence. Retrieved March 13, from https://www.ptsd.va.gov/public/types/violence/domestic- violence.asp
Veranda, M. N. (2013) Exploring domestic violence in an Indian setting. Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 20(1), 135-146
Walker, L. E. (1979). The battered woman. New York, NY: Harper and Row
Walker, L. (2009). The battered woman syndrome (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Springer Pub.
Warshaw, C., Sullivan, C.M., Rivera, E.A., (2013).A systemic review of trauma-focused interventions for domestic violence survivors. Retrieved March 3, 2018 from the National Center on Domestic Violence, Trauma & Mental Health website: http://www.nationalcenterdvtraumamh.org/ wp- fcontent/uploads/2013/03/NCDVTMH_EBPLitReview2013.pdf
Wasim, F. (2014). South Asian Aamerican daughter-in-law/mother-in-law relationships, cultural values conflict, and help-seeking for domestic violence. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved January 20, 2018 from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses. (Accession Order No. 3641446
Wilson, K. J. (2006). When violence begins at home: A comprehensive guide to understanding and ending domestic abuse. Alameda, CA: Hunter House.
Women of Color Network. (2006). Domestic violence - Communities of color. Retrieved February 4, 2018 from http://www.nhcadsv.org/uploads/woc_domestic-violence.pdf World Health Organization. (2012). Understanding and addressing violence against women: Intimate partner violence. Retrieved March 26, 2016 from http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/77432/l/WHO_RHR_12.36_eng.pdf Wright, E. O., & Rogers, J. (2013). American society: How it really works. New York, NY: Norton.
Yalom, I. D., & Leszcz, M. (2005). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Yoshihama, M., Dabby, C. (2009). Domestic violence in Asian, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander homes. Retrieved May 2018, from https://mnadv.org/_mnadvWeb/wp- content/uploads/2013/12/Facts-and-Stats-DV-in-Asian-Native-Hawaiian-and-Pacific- Islander-Homes.pdf
Appendix: Workshop
Working With South Asian Indian Women Exposed to Domestic Violence in the United States: A Workshop for Therapists
By: Rajinder Basra
Introduction
While society is becoming increasingly aware and intolerant of domestic violence (DV), studies reveal that DV is still a widespread phenomenon. According to Roberts and Roberts (2005), Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is one of the “most harmful, traumatic, and life- threatening criminaljustice and public health problems in American society; every 9 seconds a woman is assaulted and battered by her male partner” (p. 4). Furthermore, with the U.S. becoming more diversified, it is crucial that mental health professionals receive better training and more awareness ofhow to work with families ofDV from a collectivist cultural perspective i.e., the South Asian Indian community.
Leaving an abusive relationship takes tremendous courage because it can be a very frightening decision for survivors ofDV due to the threats made to the victim from their intimate partner and/or his family. How to assure safety (especially when studies reveal that lethality is the highest when the victims decides to leave), trust again due to isolation imposed by the abuser, and be prepared to deal with the legal system which can be more complicated if the survivor and abuser have children in common. For these reasons it is crucial that therapists be aware of the survivors’ barriers and correct resources in order to provide them with the help they need.
The purpose of this workshop is to educate therapists regarding DV by highlighting the barriers that keep DV survivors trapped in abusive relationships with the added barriers that is unique to the SAI population. The presentation will be presented using PowerPoint. The two day workshop encompasses handouts, audio and video tapes which are all provided by the facilitator.
The step by step workshop is illustrated next.
Note of the editorial: Some of the images in the appendix were removed du to copyright issues
Agenda for the Two-Day Workshop
Day 1
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Day 2
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
I am
Objective
- For attendees to get to know each other -To encourage group participation
- To encourage attendees to use each other’s names through the workshop
- This icebreaker will be utilized at the beginning of the workshop so that the participants can get to know each other.
- Go over ground rules of the training:
— Respect for confidentiality: What is said in group stays in the group
—Attendees must arrive on time.
— No use of cell phones when in session. All cell to be on silent mode. Attendees may accept important calls and tend to them outside of the room.
— Be respectful and sensitive to others: All attendees are to respect participants’ views and beliefs in the workshop
—Be supportive and encouraging to each other
—Share feelings and experience but not advice
—Avoid interrupting or having side conversations
—Be honest and have a positive attitude
—Refrain from using offensive language
— Keep drinks in closed containers. Food is allowed while in session
—Use of drugs or alcohol during workshop is an automatic termination
What are you hoping to gain from attending this workshop?
History of Domestic Violence
(Two page hand- out)
Opening Question: Who knows what the phrase “Rule of Thumb” means?
753 B.C. During the reign of Romulus in Rome, wife beating is accepted and condoned under The Laws of Chastisement. Under these laws, the husband has absolute rights to physically discipline his wife. These laws permit husband to beat his wife with a rod or switch as long as its circumference is no greater than the girth of the base of the man's right thumb, hence “The Rule of Thumb.”
Late 1500’s- In England, “the Golden Age of the Rod” is used against women and children who are taught that it is their sacred duty to obey the man ofthe house. Violence against wives is encouraged throughout this time
1829, December Sati (also spelled Sutee) or “wife burning” is outlawed by Governor General, Lord William Bentinck. Sati was practiced amongst many communities in India and was considered the highest honor for a widowed woman (Liao, 2006; Singh, 1999).
1880’s In England, the law is changed to allow a wife who had been habitually beaten by her husband to the point of “endangering her life” to separate from him, but cannot divorce him
1866- The Amerian Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals is formed. It predates the founding of the Society forthe Prevention of Cruelty to Children, established in 1875. Both predate any organization aimed at preventing cruelty to women.
1867- A man in North Carolina is acquitted of giving his wife three licks with a switch about the size of one of his fingers, but smaller than his thumb. The reviewing appellate court later upheld the acquittal on the grounds that the court should “not interfere with family government in trifling cases.”
1874 - The “finger-switch” rule is disavowed when the Supreme Court of North Carolina rules that “the husband has no right to chastise his wife under any circumstances.” The court goes on to say, “If no permanent injury has been inflicted, nor malice, cruelty nor dangerous violence shown by the husband, it is better to draw the curtain, shut out the public gaze and leave the parties to forget and forgive.”
1880- In England, the law is changed to allow a wife who had been habitually beaten by her husband to the point of “endangering her life” to separate from him, but cannot divorce him.
1882- Maryland is the first state to pass a law that makes wife-beating a crime, punishable by 40 lashes, or a year in jail.
1920- American women win the right to vote with the passage of the 19th Amendment to the Constitution
1925- Indian Succession Act is passed in 1925 to provide women equal property rights, however, substantial biases persist even in present time. The act of dowry is currently practiced in India all around the globe, thereof, Indian girls do not acquire property inheritance.
1945- A California statute states, “Any husband who willfully inflicts upon his wife corporal injury resulting in a traumatic condition, and any person who willfully inflicts upon any child any cruel and inhumane corporal punishments or injury resulting in a traumatic condition, is guilty of a felony, and upon conviction thereof shall be punished by imprisonment in the state prison for not more than 10 years or in the county jail for not more than 1 year.” A San Jose Superior Court Judge, Eugene Premo, dismisses murder charges against a husband accused of murdering his wife. The judge rules that the California wife-abuse law discriminates on the basis of sex by only making mention ofhusbands, and is unconstitutional.
1961- The Dowry Prohibition Act of is passed in India to outlaw the practice of dowry
1966- Beating, as cruel and inhumane treatment, becomes grounds for divorce in New York, but the plaintiff must establish that a “sufficient” number of beatings have taken place 1972- The July issue of Ms. Magazine reports in the “No Comment” section, an ad for a bowling alley in Michigan, which reads “Have some fun. Beat your wife tonight. Then celebrate with some good food and drink with your friends 1975- Most U.S. states allow wives to bring criminal action against a husband who inflicts injury upon her.
1977- Francine Hughes is acquitted on the grounds of “temporary insanity” for the murder of her husband. She suffered abuse since 1963, but received no help from police or social workers. Even when she divorced him, he refused to move out. Her story is told in 1980 by Faith McNulty in The Burning Bed: theTrue Story of an Abused Wife.
1978- The National Coalition Against Domestic Violence emphasize gaining financial aid for shelters and grassroots services, sharing information and supporting research beneficial to the movement. Battered spouse” and “battered woman” are new categories added to the International Classification of Diseases: Clinical Modification Scheme
1980- The Los Angeles County Domestic Violence Council forms
1981- there are nearly 500 battered women's shelters in the United States Nilda Rimonte, a Filipino victim of abuse, establishes Every Women's Shelter in Los Angeles, CA. It is the first shelter in the U.S. for Asian Women. - Restraining orders are granted only for divorce, separation or custody proceedings in 12 states
1983- Over700 shelters are in operation nationwide serving 91,000 women and 131,000 children peryear 1985- New York Asian Women's Center is formed. It sponsors programs to combat violence against Asian women. Tracey Thurman wins her suit against a Connecticut police department for negligence and violation of her civil rights. Her husband receives a 15-year sentence for attacking her, stabbing her and repeatedly kicking her in the head during 1983.
1990- The Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) begins to recognize domestic violence as grounds for asylum in the U.S. 1990- A survey of several hundred therapists regarding domestic violence cases reveals that 41% failed to identify obvious evidence of violence. None ofthe therapists identified the lethality ofthe situation. Those who did identify conflict minimized the severity and 55% said they would not intervene. Fourteen percent said they would work on the couples “communication style.
1992- The U.S. Surgeon General ranks abuse by husbands to be the leading cause of injuries to women aged 15 to 44. The American Medical Association releases guidelines suggesting that doctors screen women for signs of domestic violence. Nineteen states require arrest for violation of an order of protection.
1994- Congress passes the Violence Against Women Act, part ofthe federal Crime Victims Act, which funds services for victims of rape and domestic violence, allows women to seek civil rights remedies for gender related crimes, and provides training to increase police and court officials' sensitivity.
1995- O.J. Simpson is acquitted in the murders of Nicole Brown-Simpson and Ron Goldman 1997- O.J. Simpson is found liable for the deaths of Nicole Brown-Simpson and Ron Goldman in a civil lawsuit and is ordered to pay $33 million to the families
2005- AMA developed guideline on appropriate clinical responses to domestic violence outline in Diagnostic and Treatment Guidelines on Domestic Violence.
Source:
(Durve, 2012 p. 387; Diwan, 1983; Herstory, 1999; Singh, 2017)
ICADV, 2019; Cultural Imperialism or Rescue? The British and Suttee
National Women’s History Project: http://www.nwhp.org/resources/womens-rightsmovement/detailed-timeline/
Indiana Coalition Against Domestic Violence: http://www.icadvinc.org/what-is-domesticviolence/history-of-battered-womens-movement/
National Center of Domestic and Sexual Violence http://www.ncdsv.org/images/NYCHRADSS_TImelineBWM_2008.pdf
Discuss Poem
Definition of DV/IPV
The facilitator obtains definitions of DV from participants. Then the facilitator provides the definitions below:
~ DV/IPV commonly refers to psychological, physical, or sexual harm inflicted by a current or former partner or spouse
~ (World Health Organization, 2012)
-Among intimate partners, power “refers to the ability of one person to influence a relationship toward his own goals, interests, and well-being” (p. 10).
- (Knudson-Martin and Mahoney, 2005)
-The United States Department of Justice (2016) defines DV as a: pattern of abusive behavior in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over another intimate partner. Domestic violence can be physical, sexual, emotional, economic, or psychological actions or threats of actions that influence another person. This includes any behaviors that intimidate, manipulate, humiliate, isolate, frighten, terrorize, coerce, threaten, blame, hurt, injure, or wound someone (para.l).
~Durve (2012) includes religion and spiritual abuse to this list defining it as “using religious beliefs, ideologies, or sacred texts to support abusive behavior and discredit or trivialize personal beliefs” (p.14).
-Facilitator discloses her preference to the use of the term DV over IPV.
-Studies reveal that abuse inflicted on victims from the SAI community also stems from the husband’s family as well.
Gender Stereotyping Exercise
-Gender Boxes exercise originally created by the Oakland Men’s Project https://www.pcc.edu/resources/illumination/documents/gender-role-boxes-glbtq-and-sexism-exercise.pdf
VIDEO
Violence against women—it's a men's issue: Jackson Katz at TEDxFiDiWomen (skip video if not running on time. Facilitator should prioritize discussion over video)
https://www.ted.com/talks/jackson_katz_violence_against_womenjt_s_a_men_sjssue
What Inhibits Help-Seeking
Discuss Poem (Learned Helplessness)
-author unknown (DV survivor) (http://www.hiddenhurt.co.uk/domestic violence poems 1 .html#learned)
Leaving is a Process
A common response to DV:
- "What!! Your husband/boyfriend beats you up. I would never put up with that abuse. Why don’tyou just leave him?"
- As much as we would like to imagine or believe that we would leave at the first signs of abuse, breaking free of abuse is not a simple step walking outthe door.
- There are many reasons that stops a victim from leaving:
- Strong emotional and psychological forces keep victims tied to the abuser.
- Sometimes situational realities like a lack of money keep the victim from leaving.
- The reasons for staying vary from one victim to the next, and they usually involve several factors.
Emotional reasons for staying
- Beliefthatthe abusive partner will change because ofhis remorse and promises to stop battering
- Fear of the abuser who threatens to kill the victim if abuse is reported to anyone
- Lack of emotional support
- Guilt over the failure of the relationship
- Attachment to the partner
- Fear of making major life changes
- Feeling responsible for the abuse
- Feeling helpless, hopeless and trapped
- Belief that she is the only one who can help the abuser with his problems
Situational reasons for staying
- Economic dependence on the abuser
- Fear of physical harm to self or children
- Fear of emotional damage to the children over the loss of a parent, even if that parent is abusive
- Fear of losing custody of the children because the abuser threatens to take the children if victim tries to leave
- Lackofjobskills
- social isolation and lack of support because abuser is often the victim’s only support system
- Lack of information regarding domestic violence resources
- Belief that law enforcement will not take her seriously
- Lack of alternative housing
- Cultural or religious constraints
Power and Control Tactics (DV Relationships)
Have attendees fill out a blank power and control. Remind them think about the types of tactics abusers can use to keep the victim in the relationship. After they have completed it, pass out the power and control wheel (Duluth Model) and have participants compare the two.
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Power and Control Tactics (DV Relationships)
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
A service provider does not necessarily perform all of the roles listed below, nor is the list meant to be exhaustive. Some of the roles a service provider play when working with battered Asian Indian women include:
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Definition of Collectivism
- characterized by emphasis on cohesiveness among individuals who emphasize their extended family (oftentimes no less, and even more than their nuclear family), as well as their tribe, cultural/ethnic community, and nationality (Haj-Yahia, 2011)
Source: Image retrieved from: http://www.gpccolorado.com/collectivism/
- It is important to be aware that as a result of this worldview, members of the collective (separately and together) often tend to sacrifice personal needs, aspirations, goals, and expectations for the benefit oftheir collective group.
- -Unlike individualism, the believe is that one’s wellbeing, survival, quality oflife, prosperity and growth, and adjustment are closely related to those dimensions amongtheir collective.
- -As a result of members often tending to sacrifice their personal needs, aspirations, goals, and expectations for the benefit of their family, can lead victims to stay silence, hence leaving them trapped in subservient roles due to the shame thatthey think will bring upon their entire clan.
- -The collectivist cultural pattern can also be found among first, second, and third- generation members of collectivist communities residing in countries where the majority society is considered individualist
~ (Dasgupta & Warrier, 1996) (Haj-Yahia, 2011)
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
DOMESTIC ABUSE INTERVENTION PROGRAMS
2LI 2 Las-L Superior Street
Duluth. Minnesota 55302
21S722.27S1
www.lheduluthmadcLorg
- The United States Census Bureau (2010) reports that the Asian Indian population in the U.S. reveals a growth rate of 69.37%, making it one of the fastest growing ethnic groups in the United States hence why therapists need to be better equipped when working with this community. There are many cultural components that hinder their freedom from abusive relationships.
(Hoeffel, Rastogi, Kim, & Shahid, 2012; Liao, 2006)
- India alone has sixteen official languages and hundreds of dialects that lie within each of those languages. In regards to religion Hinduism is the most popular religion in India, however, Christianity, Islam, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Sufism, Zoroastrianism, and Judaism are also openly practiced, all of which make barriers even more rigid for SAI women to seek help.
(Kubany, 2008)
Gender Socialization Consequences for SAI Men and Women
- Cultural norms that socialize SAI women to believe they are subordinate to men
- History of Sati (Wife Burning)
- No Inheritance; dowry only
- Arranged marriages and forced marriages
- Karva Chauth
- Stigma of divorce
- Raksha Bandhan
- Lohri
History of Sati (Wife Burning)
- Sati (also spelled Suttee) or “wife burning” was outlawed in December, 1829 by
-overnor-General, Lord William Bentinck.
- Sati was practiced amongst many communities in India and was considered the highest honor for a widowed woman
- The widowed woman “committed suicide” either voluntarily or by the use of force or coercion.
- The best known form of sati was when a woman burned to death on her husband's funeral.
- The last famous practice was held on September 04, 1987 in a village of Rajasthan where an eighteen-year-old widow burned to her death on her husband’s funeral after being married for seven months. Due to protests from women’s groups and media interest, the state government was pressured to pass a law banning the practice yet again
~ Source (Banerjee, 2018]; Liao, 2006; Nankani, 2000; Singh, 1999]
Note: Allow participants to process this information. I witnessed many friends, family, and peers who were extremely disturbed by this tradition.
This ritual represents that women have no value
No Inheritance; Dowry Only
Source: http://www.askbd.org/ask/2015/04/01/violen.ce-women.-dowry-jan.uary-march-2015/
Source: http://vikaspedia.in/social-welfare/women-and-child-development/women-development-1/meera-didi-se-poocho/dowry
- Many researchers have described dowry as a form of inheritance or an investment given to daughters due to the custom ofbrides having to join their husband’s household, i.e., reside with their husband and his family. This is because family life in India is said to be patrilineal where kinship is defined through men
- The Indian succession act was passed in 1925 to provide women equal property rights
- But substantial biases persisted and still do even in present time.
- The discriminatory attitude placed against the daughters if she has been given a share pressures her not to accept her right: reducing her property to paper rights only.
- The Dowry Prohibition Act ofl961 was passed in India to outlaw the practice of dowry.
- -This act states that “to give, take, or demand a dowry is an offense punishable by imprisonment and fines.
- -Dowry is still commonly practiced in marriages in India.
- After the reform, parents either provide their daughters with higher dowries or more education to compensate their daughters for the disinheritance (Roy, 2015 p. 244).
- A qualitative research in the United States on SAI women revealed that 50% of the victims that were being abused by their husbands was either due to their perception of receiving an inadequate dowry or wanting the bride’s parents to still provide gifts after years of marriage.
- The husbands’ families also played a part in the ongoing violence against these women.
- One of the victim’s in the study reported that her “in-laws felt that her husband had a right to beat her as her dowry was small” (Dagupta & Warrier, 1996 p.251)
-Source (Anderson, 2003; Dasgupta & Warrier, 1997; Diwan, 1983; Rao, 1993; Roy, 2015; Singh, 2017)
No Inheritance; Dowry Only Con’t
- Facilitator will share personal experience and personal photos of this tradition 4- Dowry does not end only with the daughter’s wedding. Parents or the daughter’s brother also provides gifts for all of her in-laws when her child is getting married
- Top Photo: Facilitator’s wedding in UK. All immediate male family members were greeted with blankets topped with 24 carat gold ring and 101 cash pounds per guest in 1988
- Husband’s niece’s wedding:
- Gifts for all members of my sister-in-law’s daughter’s wedding are displayed as well as gifts for her daughter by Grandmother, myself, and my husband i.e., her brother in UK in 1993
Arranged Marriages/ Forced Marriages
Source: https://www.npr.org/sections/pictureshow/2011/06/29/137059781/the-secret-world-of-child-brides
Source: https://www.rappler.com/world/regions/asia-pacific/135263-south-asian-girls-forced-marriage
Arranged Marriages/ Forced Marriages Con’t
An arranged marriage is customary and one of the “most common forms of marriage in South Asia.” (Abraham, 2000 p. 21).
- Wealth, education, appearance, age, and family background are a significant criterion used to evaluate the relative desirability of the woman and the man by their families as well as fair skin in regards to the woman’s appearance.
- -Caste and religion also play a crucial role in the process of arranging the marriage.
- For example, according to Abraham, amongst various polarized differences in the belief system, a very common one is that Hindus, Christians, and Sikhs do not practice the norm of marrying within their own kin network as Muslims do.
- -Evaluation process is inherently not equal due to the dominate position the prospective groom’s family holds over the bride.
- -This inequality exists due to unmarried women/girls being more stigmatized than unmarried men.
- -This stigma along with the importance of bearing children inevitably places more pressure for females to find a suitable male match,
- -After marriage, SAI women are further placed in a vulnerable unfair position due to her having to reside with her husband’s family and the worldview on fertility.
- A woman’s fertility is central in defining her status and identity” as well as “the birth of sons in continuing the patrilineage (Abraham, 2000, p.22)
- Due to many SAI women having very little or no sexual experience, and issues of sexuality not discussed prior to marriage, lots of women describe their wedding night to be a horrific experience; some describe their wedding night as being raped
- This experience is further skewed due to Hindi films portraying intimate relationships, courting, and wedding nights to be only romantic where no kissing is shown. The multibillion film industry in India predominately portrays strict traditional gender roles.
(Abraham, 2000)
- Statistics on arranged marriages/ forced marriages and semi arranged marriages for SAI in the United States are limited
- Statistics on love marriages (where partners choose each other) are limited. Due to some rise in love marriages, more studies need be conducted regarding this issue and DV
~ Source (Abraham, 2000 p. 21; Dupree, Bhakta and Patel, 2013)
Note: Facilitator was the first in her lineage to have a love marriage. It is considered a love marriage when a couple finds themselves and there was no middle person arranging it. It is becoming more acceptable as long as the couple is compatible in regards to looks, socioeconomic status, and education but more importance is placed on caste and religion.
Both brothers who were also raised in the USA had semi arranged marriages (it is arranged through someone but both parties have the option to accept or decline the proposal).
All family members had traditional arranged marriages where they do not have a choice prior to facilitator’s generation. Parents marriage was arranged / forced and ceremony was conducted at age eleven and ten
- Prior to the wedding ceremony, groom and his family arrive with a grand entrance
- The men greet each other but women are not part of this
- Faciliator’s father and father-in-law in UK 1988
Karva Chauth
- Karva Chauth as customary celebration in India where married women fast from sunrise to moonrise (the entirety of day) to ensure prosperity, longevity and well-being of their husbands.
- Engaged and married women are not allowed to touch food or even water on this day
- Mostly practiced amongst Hindu women
- Portrayed in many famous blockbuster Hindi films
- The custom draws attention to a well known Hindi phrase, “Pati Parmeshwar hota hai,” which is used and represents this festivity (Google Translate: Hindi -“Pati Parmeshwar hota hai” translated in English is “husband is God”)
- The message that husband is equal to God is embedded in “unmarried daughters to imitate their mother’s behavior.” Nesbitt’s (1993) study’s results reveal that in the lives of Indian children, festivities such as these start gender socialization process very early on hence pressuring them to adhere to traditional strict gender roles.
~Source (Bhalla, 2005; Nesbitt, 1993, p. 81; Rait ,2005)
- Famous celebrities such as Aishwarya Rai, who has been crowned Miss World, has had a leading role in the American movie Pink Panther nextto Steve Martin, and has been the face for many Loreal products, also participates in the yearly ritual with her husband.
Karva Chauth Con’t
Aishwarya Rai
http://www.pageanthologvl01.eom/2016/l l/aishwarva-rai-miss-world-november-19.html
http://movieplatz.blogspot.com/2009/Q2/aishwarva-rai-goes-pink-for-pink.html
https://www.flickr.com/photos/ballvooo/3307044817
35 second Video
Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hjghBXqubDE
Stigma of Divorce
- A number of studies reveal that divorce rates are low in SAIs
- Being divorced in Indian society carries a strong stigma.
- The concept of divorce is still taboo to the vast majority of the Indian population. If a husband and wife are not getting along, the wife is expected to adjust and make things work. Women are instructed by their mothers, sisters, aunts, and grandmothers to concede to their husband’s wishes and expectations, with the hope that they will be able to win their husband’s heart and ultimately lead a happy life together.
B Asian American women reveal that “divorce is commonly viewed as unacceptable, and women receive positive societal reinforcement for “enduring” violence for the sake of their families’ togetherness” (Lee, p.93)
- SAI women who leave their husbands are labeled “loose, immoral, unlucky, a burden to the parents, selfish, and uncaring.” The latter labels lead women to social ostracism which is also extended to her family as well (Abraham, p. 21).
- The stigma of divorce can further impact her unmarried sisters’ marriage eligibility as well
~ Source (Abraham, 2000; Dupree, Bhakta, and Patel, 2013; Lee, 2015;
Source: https://www.quora.com/topic/Divorce-in-India
Source: https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2014/05/31/south-asians-divorce-taboo n 4178424.html
Lohri
Gender socialization: beginning at birth (Male preference)
- Northern India celebrates the yearly Punjabi festival of Lohri
- It marks the end of the winter. Do to major crops grown in this region, harvesting season holds special importance for farmers
- Apart from celebrating the good harvest, Lohri also celebrates fertility.
- Very little information on this festivity and many sources inform readers that Lohri celebrates the birth of a child with a few stating that the celebration is for male births
- Facilitator agrees with the latter statement due to personal life experience of witnessing celebrations for male births ONLY. Facilitator aligns with the information that the celebration is for the birth of a male child and a first marriage in a family as well as the first harvest.
~ Source (Bhalla, 2005; Bedi, 2006; Nesbitt, 1993; “Lohri festival” 2018)
Lohri Con’t
-Various internet sites displaying many samples that display invites stating “Lohri for their son”
Source', http://njcugrad.info/lohri-invitation-cards/illustration-festival-celebration-invitation-stock-illustration-of- festival-celebration-invitation-template-to-edit-lohri-invitation-cards-matter/
Source: https://www.etsv.com/listing/554241528/bov-lohri-bonfire-indian-puniabi-babv
Source: https://www.wearegurgaon.com/lohri-events-celebrations-gurgaon-2018/
Source: http://www.fhckriver.com/photos/ankitagrawal87/23760610683/
- Facilitator’s father-in-law starting the bonfire for her first born son’s Lohri.
- Family member celebrating Lohri for their twin son and daughter last year here in LA, CA and guests only brought gifts for their son.
Raksha Bandhan
Source: https://bestlovesms.in/raksha-bandhan-wishes-for-brother-sister/
Source: http://www.iacrfaz.org/raksha-bandhan/
The word Raksha means protection, whilst Bandhan is the verb to tie
Raksha Bandhan, also referred to as Rakhi, is an annual popular festival celebrated across India where sisters tie a sacred thread on their brother’s wrist and perform a short prayer for their brothers’ good health and long life.
Brothers can be male cousins who have a close bond with each other, and also in cases when a female does not have a sibling brother of her own.
The sister gives her brother something sweet after tying the thread, and he in return vows to protect his sister and offers her a gift, usually of money.
The concept ofRaksha Bandhan is mainly that of protection and Nesbitt argues that “the brother’s gift indicates the strong protecting the weak” (Nesbitt, 1993 p.81).
Source: (Nesbitt 1993; Religions: BBC, 2014) Source: http://www.iacrfaz.org/raksha-bandhan/
Raksha Bandhan Con’t
Top Photo: Facilitator’s last Rakhri before marriage Below: Facilitator’s children
Patriarchy (Personal Experiences)
Celebrations of many traditions as well as myths and rituals that facilitator either participated or witnessed that signaled male importance are as follows:
- The list of personal experiences is not practiced in all of India but do overlap with many other groups within the SAI community and is not spoken about.
- Traditions and rituals that promote male dominance is the driving force for me to try and bring about change in my community as well as train therapists, especially American therapists, on how to better build a therapeutic alliance when working with SAI survivors of DV.
- In regards to violence againstwomen i.e., DV, there are many commonalities between SAI and U.S. women as well as women from various collectivist cultures and some clear differences. More attention needs to paid to the differences
*** Facilitator’s disclosure will be covered according to time
VIDEO: Women practice saying their husband's name By Geeta Pandey BBC News, Delhi July 28, 2017Retrieved July 8, 2018 from https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-40745343 *** Open discussion for all questions about SAI community
CLINICAL GUIDELINES
- 1. Inquiry
- Before asking any questions, separate the client from any visitors.
- Create a safe place where client can talk about abuse.
- Inform client about any limits in confidentiality for example, child abuse.
- Reassure client that information will not be shared with the abuser.
- Introduce issue with neutral statements.
- Normalize your questioning in a respectful, non-judgmental way.
- Questions to Avoid: Are you a battered woman? Does your husband/boyfriend beat you? Your child isn’t witnessing the abuse, is s/he?
- 2. Assessment
- Assess for Stalking -Does he follow you? Let you go out by yourself or monitor your phone or emails?
- Assess for Sexual Violence - “unwanted sex” “unwanted touching”, etc.
- Asses health and safety needs for suspicion that child abuse is occurring.
- Explore her feelings/options: Prioritize what she wants to do (restraining order, shelter, counseling, support groups).
- Assess the immediate safety needs of the client.
- The connection between IPV and client’s health issues (degree of partner’s control over client)
- Client’s current access to advocacy and support groups (culturally appropriate community resources)
- Assess for lethality risk
- Indicators of higher levels of risk to client
- Gun in the home or access to a gun
- Past use of weapons or threats to use weapons
- Choking/strangulation
- Forced sex
- Abuser is heavy drug or alcohol user
- Abuser has threatened to kill partner, children or self
- Survivor believes abuser is capable of killing
- Extreme controlling behavior orjealousy
- Violence directed at children
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Safety Plan
Safety and survivor’s emotional health...
This may be a hard time for the survivor. She needs to have as much emotional support as possible. Have her think about who she can trust and rely on for support, such as friends, family, faith leader, neighbors and/or co-workers.
What to provide Survivor with:
Safety at your workplace or in public areas.
-When possible, talk to your boss about a safety plan at work.
-Try to arrange time off for court appearances.
-Keep your restraining order (RO) with you at all times.
-Let trusted co-workers and security know you have a RO.
-If available, request an escort from security to and from your car -Provide a picture of your abuser to security at your workplace.
-Vary your schedule whenever possible.
-If you are being followed when in public, go to the nearest group of people.
-If you are followed when in your car, go to the nearest police station, fire station or public place such as a shopping area and blow your horn for help.
- If you feel the need to hide, contact the battered women’s hotline for information on safe shelter
National Domestic Violence Hotline 1-800-799-7233 TDD: 1-800-787-3224
Safety at home.
-Inform friends, family and neighbors that you have a restraining order.
-Change all your locks, check your windows for security and consider installing motion sensitive lights. -Ask police to do a safety check of your home for weak safety areas.
-Keep a cell phone with you. Ask your local police about 911 cell phones.
-Contact the District Attorney’s Office about getting the ADT AWARE alarm system installed in your home (413-774-3186).
-Have a plan ready in case the situation gets worse. Pack an overnight bag with copies of important papers and leave it in a safe place outside the home.
What To Take With You When You Leave
Try to keep some things in your purse or wallet:
Have important numbers on speed dial
Driver's license or ID
Social security card
Passport or green card
Money
Checkbooks
Credit cards
ATM cards
Bankbooks
Bank account numbers
House and car keys
Birth Certificates
Address book/Cell phone contacts
Important Passwords and pin numbers
Welfare ID
Medications
Extra glasses or contact lenses, hearing aid, other medical necessities
Medical, life, and auto insurance papers
Divorce papers or marriage license
Immigration/legal residency papers
Court orders, restraining orders
Birth certificates for you and your children
Immunization records
Apartment rental agreement or house deed
Police reports or documentation of previous abuse
Lease or rental agreement, house deed
Medical and school records
Jewelry or small objects you can sell
Car registration and title (pink slip)
Family photos
Children’s clothing and small toys
Remember: These things are not as important as the lives of you and your children!
Treatment
Support Groups for Domestic Violence.
- Support groups (SG)enable members to learn that other people struggle with the same problems, feel similar emotions, and think similar thoughts
- SGs can decrease a person’s sense of isolation, provide emotional support, and encourage healthy coping strategies to deal with stressful life events.
- By hearing other victims’ share their stories helps members to get clarity on the psychological abuse the batterer had subjected onto her.
- Study on DV victims revealed significant improvements in regards to “self-esteem, belonging support, locus of control, less traditional attitudes towards marriage and
the family, perceived stress, and marital functioning. Reduces survivors’ self-blame and isolation, while increasing their self-esteem and self-efficacy.
- Abuse often results in women having distorted and overly negative perceptions of themselves (including shame, self-blame, sense of powerlessness). Because abusers often intentionally isolate their victims.
- SGs can aid in breaking the isolation through the act of bringing survivors together.
- SGs represent the main intervention whereby women can learn what options they have to protect themselves and their children from further abuse. Support groups are ideal because they can provide easier access, are less costly, along with many other psychological benefits such as mutual shared experience, thus making victims feel less isolated
~ Source (Fry & Barker, 2002; Jacobs; 2012; Toseland and Rivas, 2001) (Tutty, Bidgood & Rothery, 1993; Yalom, 2005)
Treatment for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
- Symptoms ofPTSD have shown to be highly prevalent in survivors ofDV
- 80% of women who experienced rape, stalking, or physical violence by their intimate partner reported significant short or long term effects ofPTSD.
- Women who have experienced IPV are three times more likely to meet the criteria for PTSD than their counter parts.
- The report also reveals that PTSD is associated with a higher risk of being susceptible to other mental health conditions as well
- PTSD diagnosed in battered women can co-occur with substance abuse, anxiety, depressive disorders as well as other traumas.
- DV survivors who are diagnosed with PTSD often experience symptoms such as, insomnia, avoidance of the trauma reminders, nightmares, hyperarousal, and intrusive distressing memories of the trauma, loss of interest in previously enjoyable activities, and loss of concentration
- There are many strength based modalities and trauma-focused psychotherapies.
- Prolonged Exposure, Trauma Focused Cognitive Behavior Therapy, Cognitive Processing Therapy, and Eye-Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR).
- The model, Cognitive trauma therapy for battered women (CTT-BW), is further discussed due to its success rate and uniqueness in working with battered women
~ Source (Kubany, 2008; National Center on Domestic Violence, 2014)
( Jones, Hughes & Unterstaller, 2001)
(AmericanPsychiatric Association, 1994)
(PTSD: National Center for PTSD, 2012)
Cognitive trauma therapy for battered women (CTT-BW)
- Battered women as a group, forms one of the “largest traumatized population in North America” (Kubany and Ralston, 2008, p. 2).
- There were no published treatment-outcome studies targeting the alleviation of PTSD in battered women
- In Kubany, Hill, and Owens’ (2003) study, “86 percent participants overcame their PTSD” and “self-esteem scores increased a mean of 92 percent”
- Unique feature in this modality is that not only does it utilize several components from existing PTSD treatments, such as psychoeducation, stress management (i.e., relaxation excerises), and exposure, but CTT-BW also addresses other issues relevant to DV survivors.
- The approach addresses issues such as self-advocacy strategies, managing stressful contact with former abuser, avoiding revictimizations and correcting problematic beliefs related to guilt, shame, and anger
- Course of treatment in CTT-BW consists ofl5 modules that are used with all clients; five optional modules that address issues that may possibly be less appropriate for other clients; and a closing module for all clients. Each session typically lasts fifty minutes. Depending on the client’s specific trauma, the number of sessions in each module can fluctuate. Apart for the modules on guilt (which can take four to five session), most modules in the approach require one to two session to complete
Other Unique Features in CTT-BW Approach
- Unlike other popular approaches that consist of therapists building rapport, CTT-BW also requires therapists to go over the Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire which is completed prior to the first session. Along with many highlights such as assigning specific homework assignments relevant to DV, self esteem guilt and shame, and negative self-talk. Module six consists of providing psycoeducation about PTSD and the rationale for exposure homework. This module leads a DV survivor to learn that her symptoms are a normal response to extreme stress, which is reassuring which can decrease the symptoms of avoidance
- CTT-BW consist of two modules that are specifically allocated to stress management
- These modules teach clients the importance of keeping one’s body relaxed.
- The use ofProgressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) is introduced using scripted exercises by a trained therapist.
- PMR is also provided as a homework assignment where clients use an audio recording and practice for twenty minutes, twice a day for the duration of therapy. DV survivors are taught how to systematically scan their body to identify which major muscles tense up in response to stress
(Kubany & Ralston, 2008 p. 2, 12)
One of the body's reactions to fear and anxiety is muscle tension. This can result in feeling “tense”, or can lead to muscle aches and pains, as well as leaving some people feeling exhausted. Think about how you respond to anxiety. Do you “tense up” when you're feeling anxious? Muscle relaxation can be particularly helpful in cases where anxiety is especially associated to muscle tension. This information sheet will guide you through a common form of relaxation
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
- Source: Center for Clinical Interventions (CCI: http://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au/resources/index.cfm)
Collectivist Orientation
- Cultural barriers prevent women of color from leaving abusive relationships
- Language difference, beliefs about marriage and the family, gender roles, and religious beliefs
- Need for culturally sensitive, family oriented, bilingual, free of charge therapy sessions with providers who have some understanding of the survivor’s culture
- Research on Asian American women points out that “divorce is commonly viewed as unacceptable, and women receive positive societal reinforcement for “enduring” violence for the sake of their families’ togetherness” (Haj-Yahia, 2011 p.93)
- Researchers caution therapists to be culturally sensitive because the therapist can be viewed as interfering in their family affairs along with insensitivity and disrespect to their collective culture(Haj-Yahia, 2011)
- Imperative that therapists understand that in collectivistic societies, the concepts of self, attitudes, values and boundaries are defined differently from those of the Western philosophy (Chadda and Deb, 2013)
- Studies reveal, therapists must be culturally sensitive, be aware of their biases, and refrain from lumbering the collectivist culture with assumptions that may not apply to another collectivist culture.
- For example, when working with a woman belonging to the SAI group, therapists must be knowledgeable that the Indian culture consists of ajoint family system, patriarchy, where a marriage is a must and a permanent union. Furthermore, preference for the male child, practice of dowry, strict code of conduct for females, and primary roles of women being childbearing and child rearing are prominent along with women holding subservient status of daughter-in-laws
(Sharma & Pathak, 2015)
Relational-Cultural Theory (RCT)
- A theoretical framework that compliments the multicultural/socialjustice movement. Issues related to sex role socialization, power, dominance, and marginalization can be explored through the use of this approach.
- Through the use of this feminist theory clients are reminded on how the traditional gender stereotypes greatly restrict her range of freedom.
- The goals therapists and clients set out need to be of "empowerment, valuing and affirming diversity, striving for change rather than adjustment, equality, balancing independence, and interdependence, self-nurturance” (Corey, 2013 p. 370)
Culturally Responsive Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CR- CBT)
- Involves problem solving and helps in fostering cognitive restructuring o First step involves defining which part of the client’s presenting problem is primarily environmental and which is internal
- Clarifying this issue early can prevent therapists from improperly or too quickly moving into cognitive restructuring. Therapists moving too quickly “can be interpreted as blaming the individual, when the real problem may be an abusive relationship” (Hays, 2008, p. 195)
(Wilson, 2006 p. 121; Perez-Neira (2005; Lee’s (2015; Haj-Yahia and Sadan (2008; Knudsen-Martin and Mahoney, 2009; Veranda, 2013; Comstock et al. 2008;, Corey 2013; Chadda and Deb 2013; Sharma and Pathak, 2015)
What Constitutes a Violation of a Restraining Order (RO)?
- The court house is not exempt from violations ofROs.
- The order is still in effect while you are in the court house
- This means the defendant should not speak to you, gesture to you, talk to you through a third party or communicate with you in any way.
- Violations outside the court house, where there is a no contact order, can include any contact such as sending flowers, letters, email, phone calls or gifts.
- An RO usually states a stay away order of one hundred yards and permission for you to record or tape any incidents.
No contact means NO contact!!!
- What to do if the Restraining Order is violated
- In an emergency call 911.
- Contact the police and report the violation.
- Keep ajournal and document any contact or violations of the order.
- Ifa violation occurs in the court house, alert the court officer or court staff.
Court officers have arrest powers in the court house.
Free services for ROs
Domestic Abuse Center (also provides DV counseling and resources)
Address: 14402 Haynes St # 204, Van Nuys, CA 91401 Phone: 18181 904-1700
-Free services for ROs
-Also provides assistance at local police stations:
Topanga (Thursdays 5-9pm) Devenshire (Wednesday 5-9pm)
Individual counseling and DV support groups in English and Spanish
Immigration Support and Restraining Order Assistance
Neighborhood Legal Services of Los Angeles, California
Address: 6230 Sylmar Ave, Van Nuys, CA 91401 & 13327 Van Nuys Blvd, Pacoima CA 91331
Phone: 1-800-433-6251
TTY; (818) 834-7575
Fax;t8181 896-6647
http://www.nlsla.org/
Free services for ROs, U-Visas, and custody issues
Financial Support
The California Victim Compensation Board (CalVCB)
Phone: 1-800-777-9229
Fax: 1-866-902-8669
http://vcgcb.ca. gov/victims/
- Victims of crime who have been injured or have been threatened with injury may be eligible for help such as, pay medical expenses and other bills, relocation, security alarms, and etc.
Referrals
Domestic Violence National Resources
Hotlines
- National Domestic Violence Hotline for the United States and Canada
1-800-799-SAFE (7233)
- Call this number to receive a referral to the closest hotline for abused women in your area. The use of this number is not restricted to women who have experienced physical violence: Women and teens are welcome to call with any issue regarding verbal abuse or control in a relationship, orjust because something is happening in their relationship that is making them uncomfortable
(http://lundybancroft.com/resources/)
- Rape Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN) Hotline 1-800-656-HOPE (4673) or online hotline at online.rainn.ors
- Call this number if you have been sexually assaulted or sexually abused by your partner or ex-partner (or by anyone else). Use the online hotline for confidential chat with a trained support specialist 24/7
- Strength United: Van Nuys, CA (24-Hour Support and Resource)
Telephone Urne (818) 886-0453 or (661) 253-0258 www.strengthunited.org
- Offers Crisis Intervention, Individual Counseling, Support Groups, Safety plan development before you leave, Safety Plan support after you leave, Civil legal services, Escape list creation, and Abusive relationship checklist
Web Sites
- Futures Without Violence (previously known as Family Violence Prevention Fund) www.futureswithoutviolence.org
- National Coalition Against Domestic Violence www.ncadv.org
- National Network to End Domestic Violence www.nnedv.org
- National Resource Center on Domestic Violence www.nrcdv.org
- Office on Violence Against Women (U.S. Department of Justice) www.usdoi.gov/ovw
Local San Fernando Valiev Shelters:
Haven Hills
- Location: Post Office Box 260, Canoga Park, CA, 91305
- Office Phone Number: (818)887-7481 24/7 Crisis Line: (818)887-6589
- Website: https://www.havenhills.org/
- Services Provided:
- The 24/7 hotline
- The 30-Day Crisis Shelter
- Day and evening support group meeting times, Information Sessions, Stress-management workshops, case-by-case individual counseling, and more.
- The Haven Two Program
- The Haven Hills Children’s Program
- LGBTQ-specific group counseling sessions and workshops
- Workshops and Trainings
Jenesse Center Inc.
- Location: P.O. Box 8476, Los Angeles, CA, 90008
- Office Phone Number: (323)299-9496 Hotline: (800)479-7328
- Website: https://jenesse.org/
- Services Provided:
- Domestic Violence Crisis Hotline
- Case Management
- VocationalEducation Program
- Mental Health Program
- Legal Services
- Children and Adolescent’s Enrichment Program
- Health
- Transportation
- Educational Programs
-Oean Park Community Center
- Location: 503 Olympic Blvd., Santa Monica, CA, 90401
- PhoneNumber:(310)264-6644 o Website: http://www.opcc.net/
- Services Provided:
- 24/7 Hotline
- Crisis Shelter
- Adams House
- Community Education and Outreach
- Support Groups
- DV101:Knowledge=Power
- T een Outreach
- Children’s Program
- Court Advocacy
- Legal Clinic
- Social Services Clinic
- Violence Prevention
South Asian Women’s Organizations in the U.S. (locations & websites)
CALIFORNIA
Aasra
41835 Albrae St., Fremont, CA 94538
510-657-1245, Helpline: 800-313-ASRA asraal@aol.com
Sahara
17100 Pioneer Blvd, Suite 260, Artesia,CA 90701
Phone: 562-402-4132 (office), 1-888-724-2722 (hotline); Fax: 562-402-6093
info@saharacares.org
www.saharacares.org
South Asian Network
18173 S Pioneer Blvd, Suite 1, 2nd floor Artesia, CA 90701
3465 West 8th St. Los Angeles, CA 90005
Phone: 562-403-0488;
Fax: 562-403-0487
saninfo@southasiannetwork.org
www.southasiannetwork.org
Maitri
P.O Box 697, Santa Clara, CA 95052.
Phone: 408-436-8398 (office); 888-862-4874 (crisis); Fax: 408 503 0887
maitri@maitri.org
www.maitri.org
Narika
PO Box 7779, Berkeley CA 94707 Office Phone: 510-444-6068;
Helpline: 510-444-6048
narika@narika.org
www.narika.org
Rajeswari Natrajan-Tyagi (Raji)
2855 Michelle Drive , Suite 300
Irvine, California 92606
(949) 397-6412 (work)
raiintvagiphd@gmail.com
Professor at Alliant University, Years in Practice: 15+
Years School: Purdue University, Year Graduated: 2004
Finances: Avg Cost (per session): $90 - $150
Sliding Scale: Yes
Dr. Dorothy O’Neal
Address: 6200 E Canyon Rim Rd, Anaheim, CA 92807
Phone: (714) 928-7974
http://oneill-psvchology.com/
Email: dr.dorothvoneill@gmail.com
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Source', (http://www.power2breakfree.com/resources2/)
For more information, questions, or concerns, please contact Raj Basra at: (818) 831-7645 or raibasra2@vahoo.com
References
Abraham, M. (2000). Speaking the unspeakable: Marital violence among South Asian immigrants in the United States. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
American Psychiatric Association [APA], (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author
Anderson, S., (2003). Why dowry payments declined with modernization in Europe but are rising in India. Journal of Political Economy, 111(2), 269-310.
Banerjee, J. (2018). Cultural imperialism or rescue? The British and Suttee. Retrieved on February 15, 2018 from http://www.victorianweb.org/history/empire/india/suttee.html
Bedi, S. S. (2006). Folklore of Punjab. New Delhi, India: National Book Trust, India.
Bhalla, K. S. (2005). Let's know festivals of India. New Delhi: StarPublications
Center for Clinical Interventions (n.d.). Retrieved May 07, 2018 from http://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au/resources/mhp.cfm
Chadda, R. , & Deb, K. (2013. Indian family systems, collectivistic society and psychotherapy. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(suppl 2), S299.
Comstock, D. L., Hammer, T. R, Strentzsch, J., Cannon, K., Parsons, J., & Salazar, G. II. (2008). Relational-cultural theory: A framework for bridging relational, multicultural, and socialjustice competencies. Journal of Counseling and Development: JCD, 86(3), 279-287.
Corey, G. (2013). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole/Cengage Learning.
Dasgupta, S. D. (2000). Changing the course: An overview of domestic violence in the South Asian community in the United States. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 9, 173-185.
Dasgupta, S., & Warrier, S. (1996). In the footsteps of “Arundhati”: Asian Indian women's experience of domestic violence in the United States. Violence Against Women, 2(3), 238-259.
Diwan, P. (1983). Family law: Law of marriage and divorce in India. New Delhi, India: Sterling Publishers Private Limited. Anon, (2013). The DuluthModel. [online] Availableat: http://www.theduluthmodel.org/pdf/CounteringConfusion.pdffAccessed 11 Mar. 2016],
Dupree, W. J., Bhakta, K., Patel, P., & Dupree, D. (2013). Developing culturally competent marriage and family therapists: Guidelines for working with Asian Indian American couples. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 41(A), 311-329.
Durve, A. (2012). The power to break free: surviving domestic violence: with a special reference to abuse in Indian marriages. Cleveland, OH: Power Press LLC.
Fry, P.S. & Barker, L.A. (2002). Female survivors of abuse and violence: The influence of storytelling reminiscence of perceptions of self-efficacy, ego strength, and self esteem. In J. D. Webster & B.K. Haight (Eds.), Critical advances in reminiscence work: From theory to application (pp. 197-217). New York, NY: Springer.
Haj-Yahia, M., & Sadan, E. (2008). Issues in intervention with battered women in collectivist societies. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 34(1), 1-13.
Haj-Yahia, M. (2011). Contextualizing interventions with battered women in collectivist societies: Issues and controversies.Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16(A), 331-339.
Harne, L., & Radford, J. (2008). Tackling domestic violence: Theories, policies and practice.
Hays, P. (2008). Addressing cultural complexities in practice. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press.
Hoeffel, E. M., Rastogi, S., Kim, M. O., & Shahid, H. (2012, March). The Asian population: 2010 census briefs. Retrieved April/May 2018, from https://www.census.gov/ prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-ll.pdf
Indiana Coalition Against Domestic Violence [ICADV], (2018.). Retrieved March 2, 2018 from http://www.icadvinc.org/
Jacobs, E. E., & Jacobs, E. E. (2012). Group counseling: Strategies and skills. Australia: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning.
Jones, L., Huges, M., & Unterstaller, U. (2001). Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in victim of domestic violence. A review of the research. Trauma, Violence and Abuse, 2, 99-119.
Katz, J. (2012). Violence against women-it's a men's issue. Retrieved March 26, 2016, from http://www.ted.com/talks/jackson_katz_violence_against_women_it_s_a_men_s_issue71a nguage=en
Knudson-Martin, C., & Mahoney, A. R. (2009). Couples, gender, and power: Creating change in intimate relationships. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.
Kubany, E., Hill, E., Owens, J., Iannce-Spencer, C., McCaig, M., Tremayne, K.,... Sobell, M. (2004). Cognitive trauma therapy for battered women with PTSD (CTT-BW). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(1), 3-18.
Kubany, E. S., & Ralston, T. C. (2008). Treating PTSD in battered women: A step-by-step manual for therapists and counselors. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.
Lee, M. Y. (2002). Asian battered women. In A. R. Roberts (Ed.), Handbook of domestic violence intervention strategies: Policies, programs, and legal remedies (pp. 472-482). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Liao, M. (2006). Domestic violence among Asian Indian immigrant women: Risk factors, acculturation, and intervention. Women & Therapy, 29(1-2), 23-39.
Nankani, S. (2000). Breaking the silence. Domestic violence in the South Asian-American community: An anthology. Philadelphia, PA: Xlibris.
National Center ofDomestic and Sexual Violence. (2008). Timeline of the Battered Womens Movement. Retrived March 3,2018 from http://www.ncdsv.org/images/NYCHRADSS_TImelineBWM_2008.pdf National Center on Domestic Violence, Trauma & Mental Health. (2014) Current evidence: Intimate partner violence, trauma-related mental health conditions & chronic illness. Retrieved March 25, 2018 from http://www.nationalcenterdvtraumamh.org/wp- content/uploads/2014/10/FactSheet_IPVTraumaMHChronicIllness_2014_Final.pdf National Center. (2012). PTSD: National Center for PTSD. Retrieved May 03, 2018 from https://www.ptsd.va.gov/
National Women’s History Project. (2018). Detailed timeline. Retrieved March 3, 2018 from http://www.nwhp.org/resources/womens-rights-movement/detailed-timeline/
Nesbitt, E. (1993). Gender and religious tradition: The role-learning of British Hindu children. Gender and Education, 5(1), 81-91.
Oakland Men’s Project. (n.d.). Gender Role Boxes Presentation and Discussion [PDF], Retrieved March 26, 2017 from https://www.pcc.edu/resources/illumination/documents/gender-role-boxes-glbtq-and-sexism- exercise.pdf
Perez-Neira, D. (2006). Abused immigrant Latina women’s perspectives on mental health services: A phenomenological study. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved May 2018, from ProQuestDissertations & Theses Global. (Accession Order No. 3222556).
Rait, S. K. (2005). Sikh women in England: Their religious and cultural beliefs and social practices. Trent, UK: Trentham Books.
Rao, V.P., and Rao, V. N. (1983). Marriage, the family, and women in India. Irvine, CA; Printox: South Asia Books
Roy, S. (2015). Empowering women? Inheritance rights, female education and dowry payments in India. Journal of Development Economics, 114(C), 233-251.
SafeNetwork: California's Domestic Violence Resource. (1999) Herstory of domestic violence: A timeline of the battered Wwomen's movement. Retrieved March 10, 2018 from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download? doi=10.1.1.208.6955&rep=repl&type=pdf
Sharma, I., & Pathak, A. (2015). Women mental health in India. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 57(Suppl 2), S201-S204. http://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.161478
Singh, R. (1999). Wife burning: Cultural cues for lethal violence against women among Asian Indians in the United States. Violence Against Women, 5(6), 641-653.
Singh, A. (2017). Women, wealth and law: Anglo-Hindu and Anglo-Islamic inheritance law in British India. South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 40(1), 40-53.
Toseland, R. W., & Rivas, R. F. (2017). An introduction to group work practice. Harlow, England: Pearson Education Limited.
Tutty, L., Bidgood, B. & Rothery, M. A. (1993). Support groups for battered women: Research on their efficacy. Journal of Family Violence, 5(4), 325-343.
Veranda, M. N. (2013) Exploring domestic violence in an Indian setting. Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 20(1), 135-146
Wilson, K. J. (2006). When violence begins at home: A comprehensive guide to understanding and ending domestic abuse. Alameda, CA: Hunter House World Health Organization. (2012). Understanding and addressing violence against women: Intimate partner violence. Retrieved March 26, 2018 from http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/77432/l/WHO_RHR_12.36_eng.pdf Yalom, I. D., & Leszcz, M. (2005). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy. New York, NY: Basic Books.
- Citation du texte
- Rajinder Basra (Auteur), 2018, Domestic Violence. A Workshop for Therapists, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/499918
-
-
-
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X.