The nature of supervision in Tanzanian context

The types, importance and challenges of supervision

Ensayo , 2016 , 10 Páginas

Sociología - General y Principios básicos

This paper is going to present the concept of supervision, types, methods, significance of supervision, its challenges and suggestion of addressing the challenges.

Effective management of human resources requires that workers know exactly what task they are expected to perform, have the necessary skills and resources to perform these tasks, and receive feedback that assists them in improving their performance. This explanation shows that workers needs supervision so that they can perform better in their responsibilities.

Contents

Historical background of supervision.

1.0 Introduction.
1.1 The Concept of Supervision.
1.2 Types of Supervision.
1.3 Significance of Supervision.
1.4 Strategies or methods of supervision.
1.5 Challenges facing Supervision process.
1.6 Suggestions towards addressing the challenges facing supervision process.

Conclusion:

REFFERENCES.

Historical background of supervision.

Carrol, M. (2007) traced the background of supervision development into three stages; Stage one it was around 1920s, in these early days he comment that there is some evidence that small groups gathered to discuss and review each other’s client work. The second phase emerged in the 1950s with the introduction of other counseling and psychotherapy orientations. This phase show that supervision was based on counseling and psychotherapy processes. The type of supervision has been called counseling bound. The third phase it was in the 1970s that supervision began to move away from counseling and make a bid for being a more educational process than a counseling one. Therefore it shows that supervision done in Tanzanian schools can be traced from 1970s up to date where there are many processes undergone in supervision. In reality Tanzania seems to pay much attention to inspection than school supervision and there is contradiction of these two terminologies supervision and inspection.

1.0 Introduction.

Effective management of human resources requires that workers know exactly what task they are expected to perform have the necessary skills and resources to perform these tasks, and receive feedback that assist them in improving their performance.,(Bradley, S., Kamwendo, F., Masanja, H., De Pinho, H., Waxman, R., Boostrom, C., and Auliffe, E., (2013). These explanation shows that workers needs supervision so that they can perform better in their responsibilities. This paper is going to presents the concept of supervision, types, methods, significance of supervision, its challenges and suggestion of addressing the challenges.

1.1 The Concept of Supervision.

The term supervision is derived from word “Super video” meaning to oversee, Adepoju (1998) as cited in Onasanya, S., (2006). This shows that supervision implies watching over a certain action or activities performing with individual or group of people.

Supervision had been defined in different ways by different scholars. Carrol, M., (2007) define supervision as a forum where supervisees review and reflect on their work in order to do it better. It means that after supervision the teachers or supervisees need to assess themselves on their teaching practice in order to improve their effectiveness. Ogunsaju, (1983) as cited in Onasanya, S., (2006) define supervision as a way of stimulating, guiding, improving, refreshing, encouraging and overseeing certain group with the hope of seeking their cooperation. It shows that supervision as a process for the improvement and overseeing a certain performing or performed activities. Also Glickman, C., (1985) define supervision as the school function that improves instruction through direct assistance to teachers, curriculum development, in-service training, group development and action research. According to Glickman supervision involves; professional growth, providing guidance and assist teachers in curriculum development. Goodyear, R.,& Bernard, J., (1998) define supervision as an intervention that is provided by a senior member of a profession to a junior member or members of that same profession. Therefore the definition developed by Goodyear and Bernard show that all educators in the teaching profession can engage in the process of supervision. For example a senior teacher of geography subject can supervise a junior teacher of the same subject. Bradley, S.,et. all.,(2013) define supervision as an approach that emphasizes joint problem-solving, mentoring and two-way communication between the supervisor and those being supervised. This definition shows that there should be close relation between supervisee and supervisor. Glatthorn, A. (1984) define Supervision as the process of facilitating the professional growth of a teacher, primarily by giving the teacher feedback about classroom interactions and helping the teacher make the use of that feedback in order to make teaching more effective.

Generally in this paper supervision is understood as a process of facilitating the professional growth of teachers though providing the guidelines and feedback about teaching and what should supposed to be done in order to make teaching more effective and improving student academic performance.

1.2 Types of Supervision.

There are different types of supervision as explained by different scholars; Brunero,S.,& Stein-Parbury, J. (2008) identify Clinical supervision as one of the type of supervision. Fowler, (1996) as cited in Brunero,S.,& Stein-Parbury, J. (2008) define Clinical supervision as a process of professional support and learning in which nurses are assisted in developing their practice through regular discussion time with experienced and knowledgeable colleagues. This definition of clinical supervision in nursing is same applied in educational context where clinical supervision can be seen as a process of professional support and learning in which teachers are assisted in developing their practice through regular discussion time with experienced and knowledgeable colleagues.

Also, Glickman, (1990) as cited in Thobega, M., (2003) define clinical supervision as a practice that involved in guiding school practices. It shows that clinical supervision based on giving direction and guidelines to carry out different activities in school. Glatthorn, A., & Shields, C. (1983) define Clinical supervision as a systematic and carefully planned program of supervision in which the supervisor works with the teacher to assist him or her in professional growth. Glatthorn, A. (1984) define Clinical supervision as an intensive process designed to improve instruction by conferring with a teacher on lesson planning, observing the lesson, analyzing the observational data, and giving the teacher feedback about the observation. Generally under this paper clinical supervision is defined as supervision type based on instruction and providing consistence support to the teachers for instructional and professional development.

Another type of supervision is Differentiated supervision. Zepeda, S. (2002) define differentiated supervision as a kind of supervision takes into account that, teachers are at different levels and stages of development, and that teachers should have some choice about the kind of supervision they receive in contrast to the situation that prevails in most schools. This kind of supervision shows that, the supervision is provided based to the needs and levels of the supervisee. Also Stephen, P. (1992) as cited in Zepeda, S.(2002) comment that there is not, and never will be a single approach to supervision that can be applied effectively to all teachers. Glatthorn, A., & Shields, C. (1983) they define differentiated supervision as a way of providing different kinds of supervisory support for teachers with different needs. In this definition the process of supervision is seen as a supervisee centered. Kappler, K., & Weckstein, D. (2012) they define differentiated supervision as the process of supervision that allows teachers to take charge of their own learning and accomplish great things. This definition empowers teachers in the process of supervision and supervisor has much trust to the supervisee. In this paper differentiated supervision is understood as a supervision process providing different kind of support to the teachers depending to their different needs.

1.3 Significance of Supervision.

Various scholars identify different importance of supervision in education as follows;

It improves instructional and promotes learning: The main focus of supervision especially clinical supervision is to improve instructions. Leeper, R., (1969) argued that the most important function of supervision is its important contribution in curriculum development. Instruction is more emphasized in order to achieve instructional goals and students’ academic excellences.

To provide guidance and support: Supervision plays important role in guiding teachers on what he or she is supposed to do and giving them assistance to achieve the goals. Thobega and Miller, (2003) argued that guidance and support should be part of the general supervision that teacher receive. A new teacher receiving any kind of support as one of the significance role of supervision develop positive attitude about his or her work hence effectiveness are improved.

To develop mutual relationship between supervisors and the supervisees: Supervision seeks to establish positive relationship and interaction between teachers and the supervisors. Sullivan, (2004) argued that democratic method of supervision should be extended and that vestiges of bureaucratic supervision should be excised. It means that developing positive relationship bureaucratic kind of supervision should be eliminated because it can lead to intimidation.

Improve skills of teaching. Teaching can become more precise if the supervision process plays its significant role. Leeper, R., (1969) argued that teaching can be improved by an efficient program of supervision. It means that, effective improvement on the skills of teaching largely depend on efficient and effective supervision.

To foster teacher motivation, inspiration and trust: Supervision seeks to develop positive attitude to the teachers about teaching and job satisfaction. Thobega, and Miller, (2003) argued that it may be reasonable to expect a positive relationship to exist between certain aspects of instructional supervision and teachers’ job satisfaction and their intention to remain in teaching. The argument shows that supervision helps to inspire teachers in their teaching profession.

To help teachers to grow professionally: Supervision as a process and its important role is to ensure teachers professional development. Leeper, R., (1969) emphasis should be placed on curriculum development and supervisors should have knowledge and inclined to help teachers reach their highest potentials. Also Glatthorn, A., & Shields, C. (1983) argued that supervision help the teacher improve professional skills by planning and reflecting about plans, by getting feedback about performance, and by analyzing the significance of that feedback with a trained supervisor.

1.4 Strategies or methods of supervision.

There are various methods or strategies employed during supervision process as follows;

Collaborative method: Monson, C. (1981) a supervision method in which a small group of teachers work together for their own improvement. Supervisors in Tanzanian schools should employ this method so as to increase understanding among teachers in implementing instruction.

Modeling: Borders, L., & Brown, L. (2005) noted that this method involves selecting a specific skill to be modeled by the supervisor and then discussed within the supervision session. It shows that supervisor select one kind of skills and discuss together in detail with the supervisee during supervision process. Its advantage the supervisee becomes competent at that specific skill.

Supervisee Self-Report: Supervisee engages him/herself in supervision and provides report to supervisor. Borders and Brown (2005) assert that this method is the most commonly used in supervision, and the most highly criticized. This method seems to be criticized because the supervisee can only report things about which he or she is aware leaving unconscious information. Generally in Tanzanian context supervision strategies based on to mina cases on portfolio, on scheme of work and lesson plan, mentoring and group discussion but these methods is not applicable continuously in supervision and makes supervision to be un- effective.

1.5 Challenges facing Supervision process.

Educational supervision is one of the most important supports upon which the educational process is based (Badah, A., Amal, A., Akroush, L., & Al Shobaki, N. 2013). This statement shows that supervision plays an important role in promoting teaching and learning in school but the process faces with different challenges. Those challenges include the followings;

Lack of formal training for supervisory roles: Munson, C., (1981) argued that while the importance of supervision remain paramount, many school do not include formal courses of supervision in the curriculum, and some have dropped supervision courses completely as the knowledge explosion has placed more demands for the inclusion of various content areas. Danielson, & McGreal, (2000) as cited in Assefa Ekyaw, B. (2014) comment that limited supervisors experience and a lack of skills as being problems in teacher supervision. He also reported that supervisors did not have enough training in providing constructive feedback while maintaining relationships. This challenge is similar to Tanzanian context where there is no special training offered at any level of education especially in secondary level and at diploma teaching and at university to the student taking education and become heads of the school and supervise in those schools without any training skills.

Shortage in the number of supervisors: Badah, A., at all. (2013) they observe that supervisors rarely visit the teachers because of large numbers of teachers on their schedule. The observation relates to the Tanzanian situation due to the limited number of external supervisors, in most of schools the external supervision process is mainly done at once per year. This became the challenge because supervision process fail to achieve its objective of improving teacher’s profession and achieving student academic excellences due to little supervision received.

Poor techniques and methods of supervision: Munson, C. (1981) Argued that this can be problematic since field instruction and supervision of professional practice often requires different techniques. In Tanzania most of the supervisors relying on their experience of how they were supervised and they fail to integrate various ways of supervision process. For example the use of collaborative method, self-directed and portfolio methods in assisting teachers during supervision is not applicable to the most of the majority of supervisors of Tanzania.

Administrative difficulties: In this challenge, Badah, A., et. all. (2013) they observe that lots of administrative and participation duties burdening the educational supervisors and also it includes weakness of the principals to practice supervision for all subjects. It is true that in Tanzania due to the increasing of administrative roles to the school head there is un-effective supervision to the teachers. This leads to supervise teachers by relying only on scheme of work and lesson plan.

Teachers Perception on Supervision: Instructional supervision aims at improving the quality of education by improving the teacher‟s effectiveness. As Lilian, (2007) cited in Assefa Ekyaw, B. (2014) the improvement of the teaching-learning process is dependent upon teacher attitudes towards supervision. Unless teachers perceive supervision as a process of promoting professional growth and student learning, the supervisory exercise will not have the desired effect. It is similar to Tanzanian context where by teachers has negative perception about supervision process and it is a major challenge why supervision in Tanzania does not bring positive outcome.

Lacks of Adequate Training and Support: Assefa Ekyaw, B. (2014) Supervisors need continuous and sufficient training to carry out their responsibility effectively. Merga,( 2007) as cited in Assefa Ekyaw, B. (2014) pointed out, lack of continuous training system for supervisors to up-date their educational knowledge and skills is obstacle of the practice of supervision. This challenge is seen in Tanzania where there is insufficient ongoing training of supervisors so that they can be able to cope with different challenges in teaching and learning due to technological changes.

1.6 Suggestions towards addressing the challenges facing supervision process.

Arrangement of induction training for beginner teachers: Assefa Ekyaw, B. (2014) recommended that instructional supervisors in Asossa zone must; arrange induction training for beginner teachers; assist teachers in lesson planning; facilitate experience sharing between teachers; assist teachers in developing/selecting instructional materials and workshops to support teachers to do action research on the specified pedagogical/instructional limitations of teachers. The suggestion will be useful to Tanzania if the supervisors will arrange and work on it because it will help to increase awareness and confidence to the new teachers.

Developing a theory of supervision: Leeper, R. (1969) Suggests that the curriculum developers and researchers shall proceed in developing a theory of supervision in order to make supervision more effective. It shows that the intention of developing theory of supervision is based on developing principles which will guide the whole process of supervision. To have clear direction of what supervision is supposed to be done in our Tanzanian schools it will help to improve effectiveness in teaching and learning.

There must be effective support to the teachers on the instruction: Assefa Ekyaw, B. (2014) commended that, teachers expect a lot of professional support from educational administrators as they had great experience and better skill; they must be committed to help and support teachers rather reasoning of having many responsibilities. In Tanzania it is true that educational leaders have many responsibilities and making supervision as an extra duty while teachers need effective supervision. Having effective support will help to achieve profession growth of the teachers and students academic performance.

Conclusion: For Tanzania to archive the objective of supervision; Government, educational leaders, society and teachers should be geared to positive attitude about supervision and teaching profession, continuous training to supervisors and teachers and ongoing supervision process.

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• Autor: Festo Lupogo (Autor)
• Año de publicación: 2016
• Páginas: 10
• No. de catálogo: V345568
• ISBN (Ebook): 9783668357471
• ISBN (Libro): 9783668357488
• Idioma: Inglés
• Etiqueta: supervision, performance, Tanzania