The Precautionary Principle (hereinafter PP) provides a justification to act where scientific uncertainty about the nature and extent of detected indications of harm would otherwise possibly impede regulatory interventions. The PP is considered to be one of the most controversial principles and attracted much scholarly attention. Despite the vast array of books and shorter articles about the topic, less documents are available that are not limited to a single aspect of the principle or − if discussing several aspects − do not fill a whole book. While the present thesis will also not be able to cover all aspects on a limited amount of pages, it nevertheless should allow readers to gain an overview of all essential points linked with the role of the PP in the framework of risk regulation in the European Union (EU). To begin with the most important, the principle is introduced by describing its main characteristics. As these are heavily dependent on those who breathe life into the principle, the characteristics the EU assigned to it shall form the centerpiece of the first part of this paper. Based on this clarification, allegations brought against the PP are critically assessed. In the second part of the thesis, the focus is shifted to the actual application of the PP in EU risk regulation. After shedding light on the origins of the principle in EU risk regulation, three case studies from the agrochemical, pharmaceutical and food packaging sector reflect current applications as well as the relevant institutional and procedural framework. Insights from the theoretical part and the case studies are melted in the final discussion section that also includes recommendations for EU risk regulators. The thesis concludes with a general summary of main findings.
The established systematic approach as applied in the case studies would allow to be extended to further cases or could be adapted to other countries or international settings. However, in this paper international aspects are only treated to a limited extend and not all sectors where the PP is applied can be presented.
Table of Contents
Bibliography
List of Abbreviations
Introduction
I... The Precautionary Principle
A. Approaching the PP’s Meanings
1. The Rio Declaration
2. The Communication from the Commission on the PP
3. Synthesis of Common Elements
a) Scope
b) Goal
c) Trigger Conditions
d) Measures
e) Legal Status
B. Debates
1. The PP Stifles Innovation and is thus Bad for Economy and Social Welfare
2. The PP Ignores Cost-benefit Ratios and Neglects Risk-risk Trade-offs
a) Pre-defined Protection Level versus Traditional Cost-benefit Analysis
b) Single-policy and Cross-policy Issues
3. The PP Ignores Sound Science and Invites Biased, Suboptimal Decisions
a) Sound Science versus the Perils of Public Risk Perception
b) Sound Science versus a Clash of Interests
c) The EU’s Perspective on the Role of Science
II.. EU Risk Regulation and the Role of the PP
A. Origins
B. Better Regulation and Structural Changes
C. Recent Applications of the PP in EU Policymaking: Case Studies
1. Choice of Cases and Applied Method
2. Case Study I: Neonicotinoids and Dying Honey Bees
a) Is there a Pre-defined Protection Level?
b) How and by Whom Has the PP Been Triggered?
c) Do Adopted Measures Meet the Criteria Stated in the COM(2000) 1?
d) Did Allegations as those Introduced in the Section about Debates Arise?
3. Case Study II: Bisphenol A (BPA)
a) Is there a Pre-defined Protection Level?
b) How and by Whom Has the PP Been Triggered?
c) Do Adopted Measures Meet the Criteria Stated in the COM(2000) 1?
d) Did Allegations as those Introduced in the Section about Debates Arise?
4. Case Study III: Antimicrobial Resistance
a) Is there a Pre-defined Protection Level?
b) How and by Whom Has the PP Been Triggered?
c) Do Adopted Measures Meet the Criteria Stated in the COM(2000) 1?
d) Did Allegations as those Introduced in the Section about Debates Arise?
III Discussion and Recommendations
A. The Debates (Will) Go On
B. Recommendations
1. The Commission Would Do Well to Become More Authentic
2. Improving Transparency Would Bring Many Benefits
3. Risk Communication Should not be Seen as Separate Risk Analysis Stage
4. Restore Lost Trust in Science
5. Learn From Others and From the Past
IV Summary and Conclusions
Abstract
Resume
Statement
Bibliography
a) Books and Journals
Alemanno, Alberto, The Shaping of the Precautionary Principle by European Courts: From Scientific Uncertainty to Legal Certainty, Cuocolo, Lorenzo/Luparia, Luca, Valori costituzionali e nuove politiche del diritto, Scritti raccolti in occasione del decennale della rivista Cahiers Europèens, Matelica 2007 (cited: Alemanno, Shaping of the Precautionary Principle).
Arndt, Birger, Das Vorsorgeprinzip im EU-Recht, Tübingen 2009 (cited: Arndt, Vorsorgeprinzip im EU-Recht).
Butaye, Patrick/Devriese, Luc A./Haesebrouck, Freddy, Antimicrobial Growth Promoters Used in Animal Feed: Effects of Less Well Known Antibiotics on Gram-Positive Bacteria, Clin. Microbiol. Rev.,2003, 175–188 (cited: Butaye/Devriese/Haesebrouck, Antimicrobial Growth Promoters).
Casewell, Mark et. al., The European ban on growth-promoting antibiotics and emerging consequences for human and animal health, JAC, 2003, 159–161 (cited: Casewell et. al.,The European ban on growth-promoting antibiotics).
Daci, Jordan, Legal Principles, Legal Values and Legal Norms: are they the same or different? Academicus, 2010 (cited: Daci, Legal Principles).
De Sadeleer, Nicolas, Origin, Status and Effects of the Precautionary Principle, De Sadeleer Nicolas, Implementing the Precautionary Principle: Approaches from the Nordic Countries, EU and USA, London 2007 (cited: De Sadeeler, Implementing the Precautionary Principle).
Ellis, Jaye, Overexploitation of a valuable resource?: New literature on the precautionary principle, EJIL, 2006, 445–462 (cited: Ellis, Overexploitation).
European Environmental Agency (EEA), Late lessons from early warnings: science, precaution, innovation, Summary, Copenhagen 2013 (cited: EEA, Late lessons from early warnings).
European Risk Forum (ERF), The Precautionary Principle: Application and Way Forward, Brussels 2011 (cited: ERF, The Precautionary Principle).
Foster, Caroline E., Science and the Precautionary Principle in International Courts and Tribunals: Expert Evidence, Burden of Proof and Finality, Cambridge 2011 (cited: Foster, Science and Precautionary Principle).
Gallai, Nicola et. al., Economic valuation of the vulnerability of world agriculture confronted with pollinator decline, Ecological Economics, 2009, 810–821 (cited: Gallai et. al., Economic valuation).
Gehring, Thomas/Kerler, Michael A./Krapohl, Sebastian, Risikoregulierung im europäischen Binnenmarkt: Regulierungsagenturen, Normungsinstitute und Komitologie-Ausschüsse, Tömmel Ingeborg, Die Europäische Union: Governance und Policy-Making, Wiesbaden 2008 (cited: Gehring/Kerler/Krapohl, Risikoregulierung).
Gies, Andreas/Soto Ana M., Bisphenol A: contested science, divergent safety evaluations, European Environmental Agency (EEA), Late lessons from early warnings: science, precaution, innovation, Copenhagen 2013 (cited: Gies/Soto, Bisphenol A).
Goulson, Dave, Review: An overview of the environmental risks posed by neonicotinoid insecticides, Journal of Applied Ecology, 2013, 977–987 (cited: Goulson, Environmental risks posed by neonicotinoids).
Graham, John D., Facing the Unknown, PERC Report, 2004, 3–6 (cited: Graham, Facing the Unknown).
Guéguen, Daniel, Reshaping European Lobbying: The pulse of change enriched by 75 leaders in European affairs, Brussels 2013 (cited: Guéguen, Reshaping European Lobbying).
Hanley, Nick/Spash, Clive L., Cost-benefit analysis and the environment, Cheltenham 1993 (cited: Hanley/Spash, Cost-benefit analysis).
Heijman, Wim, Regional Externalities, Berlin 2007 (cited: Heijman, Regional Externalities).
Hileman, Bette, Why are the bees dying?, C&EN, 2007, 48–54 (cited: Hileman, Why are the bees dying?).
Holdway, Aaron, Reducing Uncertainty: The Need to Clarify the Key Elements of the Precautionary Principle, Consilience, 2009 (cited: Holdway, Reducing Uncertainty).
Kreher, Alexander, Agencies in the European Community - a step towards administrative integration in Europe, Journal of European Public Policy, 1997, 225–245 (cited: Kreher, Agencies in the European Community).
Lang, Winfried, UN-Principles and International Environmental Law, Frowein Jochen A./Wolfrum Rüdiger, Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law, Volume 3, London 1999 (cited: Lang, UN-Principles).
Manson, Neil A., Formulating the Precautionary Principle, Environmental Ethics, 2002 (cited: Manson, Formulating the Precautionary Principle).
Marti, Ursula, Das Vorsorgeprinzip im Umweltrecht: Am Beispiel der internationalen, europäischen und schweizerischen Rechtsordnung, Zürich 2011 (cited: Marti, Vorsorgeprinzip im Umweltrecht).
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Future Global Shocks: Improving Risk Governance, Paris 2011 (cited: OECD, Future Global Shocks).
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Risk and Regulatory Policy: Improving the Governance of Risk, Paris 2010 (cited: OECD, Risk and Regulatory Policy).
Peel, Jacqueline, Science and Risk Regulation in International Law, Cambridge 2010 (cited: Peel, Science and Risk Regulation).
Pereira Di Salvo, C.J/Raymond, Leigh, Defining the precautionary principle: an empirical analysis of elite discourse, Environmental Politics, 2010, 86–106 (cited: Pereira Di Salvo/Raymond, Defining the Precautionary Principle).
Permanand, Govin/Vos, Ellen, Between Health and the Market: The Roles of the European Medicines Agency and European Food Safety Authority, Maastricht Faculty of Law Working Paper, Maastricht 2008 (cited: Permanand/Vos, Between Health and Market).
Randall, Alan, Risk and Precaution, Cambridge 2011 (cited: Randall, Risk and Precaution).
Rawls, John, A Theory of Justice, Cambridge 1971 (cited: Rawls, A Theory of Justice).
Robertson, Craig, Impact Assessment in the European Union, EIPAScope, 2008, 17–20 (cited: Robertson, Impact Assessment).
Robinson, Ray, Cost-utility analysis, BMJ, 1993, 859–862 (cited: Robinson, Cost-utility analysis).
Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP), Report of Secretariat of Work performed in the Period July 2010 – June 2012 in Relation to the Noumea Convention and Protocols, Attachement 1, Working Papers of the 11th Meeting of the Noumea Convention (cited: SPREP: Report in Relation to the Noumea Convention).
Stokstad, Erik, Pesticides Under Fire for Risks to Pollinators, Science, 2013, 674–676 (cited: Stokstad, Pesticides Under Fire).
Sunstein Cass R., Laws of Fear: Beyond the Precautionary Principle, Cambridge 2005 (cited: Sunstein, Laws of Fear).
Tickner, J./Kriebel, D.,/Wright, S., A compass for health: Rethinking precaution and its role in science and public health, International Journal of Epidemiology, 2003, 489–492 (cited: Tickner/Kriebel/Wright, A compass for health).
Tollefson, Chris, A Precautionary Tale: Trials and Tribulations of the Precautionary Principle, Canadian Institute of Resources Law, Symposium on Environment in the Courtroom, Calgary 2012 (cited: Tollefson, Precautionary Tale).
Tosun, Jale, Risk Regulation in Europe: Assessing the Application of the Precautionary Principle, New York N.Y. 2013 (cited: Tosun, Risk Regulation in Europe).
Trouwborst, Arie, Prevention, Precaution, Logic and Law: The Relationship between the Precautionary Principle and the Preventative Principle in International Law and Associated Questions, Erasmus Law Review, 2009 (cited: Trouwborst, Prevention, Precaution, Logic and Law).
Van den Belt, Henk, Debating the Precautionary Principle: “Guilty until Proven Innocent” or “Innocent until Proven Guilty”? Plant Physiology, 2003, 1122–1126 (cited: Van den Belt, Debating the Precautionary Principle).
Veinla, Hannes, Determination of the Level of Environmental Protection and the Proportionality of Environmental Measures in Community Law, Juridica International, 2004, 89–98 (cited: Veinla, Environmental Protection and Proportionality).
Wiener Jonathan B., Precaution in a multirisk world, Paustenbach Dennis J., Human and ecological risk assessment: theory and practice, New York 2002 (cited: Wiener, Precaution in a multirisk world).
Zander, Joakim, The Application of the Precautionary Principle: Comparative Dimensions, Cambridge 2010 (cited: Zander, Application of the Precautionary Principle).
b) Internet Sources (all of them have been last accessed during August 2013)
Alemanno, Alberto, Annotation of European Court of Justice, Case C-79/09, Gowan Comércio Internacional e Serviços Lda v. Ministero Della Salute (Precautionary Principle), 2011, available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1886984 (cited: Alemanno, Gowan Case Annotation).
American Society for Microbiology (ASM), Antibiotic Reduction Campaigns Do Not Necessarily Reduce Resistance, published on 29 July 2013, available at: http://www.asm.org/index.php/asm-newsroom2/88-news-room/journal-tipsheets/91752-antibiotic-reduction-campaigns-do-not-necessarily-reduce-resistance (cited: ASM, Antibiotic Reduction Campaigns Do Not Necessarily Reduce Resistance).
American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA), Frequently Asked Questions about Antimicrobial Use and Antimicrobial Resistance (FAQ), available at: https://www.avma.org/KB/Resources/FAQs/Documents/antimicrobial_use.pdf (cited: AVMA, FAQ about Antimicrobial Use).
Avaaz Foundation, 3 million to Save the Bees, posted on 7 May 2013, available at: http://www.avaaz.org/en/save_the_bees_global/ (cited: Avaaz, 3 million to Save the Bees).
Begley, Sharon, Insight: Science for hire - Trial over plastic exposes disclosure deficit, published on 18 July 2013, available at: http://news.yahoo.com/insight-science-hire-exposes-disclosure-deficit-051442469.html (cited: Begley, Insight: Science for hire).
BEUC, The European Consumer Organisation, BEUC calls for Bisphenol A to be banned, Press Release from 30 September 2010, available at: http://www.beuc.org/BEUCNoFrame/Docs/2/LHLMLGODNHFPMCCOFIFNHGOCPDWD9DB1CY9DW3571KM/BEUC/docs/DLS/2010-00582-01-E.pdf (cited: BEUC, call for Bisphenol A ban).
Birkel, Kathrin, Masse statt Klasse - Eine Haltung, die krank macht: Über den Antibiotikaeinsatz in der Tierhaltung und die Zunahme von resistenten Bakterien, Eine Studie im Auftrag von Martin Häusling, MEP, Juni 2013, available at: http://www.martin-haeusling.eu/images/attachments/130622%20BroschuereAntibiotika_END.pdf (cited: Birkel, Masse statt Klasse).
Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland (BUND), Bisphenol A, available at: http://www.bund.net/themen_und_projekte/chemie_alt/chemie_und_gesundheit/bundschwerpunkte/bisphenol_a/ (cited: BUND, Bisphenol A).
Bundesministerium für Gesundheit (BMG), Bisphenol A – Weitere Verbote bei Babyartikeln, published on 17 November 2011, available at: http://bmg.gv.at/home/Schwerpunkte/VerbraucherInnengesundheit/Bisphenol_A_Weitere_Verbote_bei_Babyartikeln (cited: BMG, Weitere Verbote in Babyartikeln).
Burke, Lauretta et al., Reefs at Risk Revisited in the Coral Triangle, World Resources Institute Report 2012, available at: http://pdf.wri.org/reefs_at_risk_revisited_coral_triangle.pdf (cited: Burke et al., Reefs at Risk).
Butterworth, Trevor, Anti BPA Crusade Discrediting Science And Environmental Health, Says Leading, Independent Expert, published on 26 February 2013, available at: http://www.forbes.com/sites/trevorbutterworth/2013/02/26/anti-bpa-crusade-discrediting-science-and-environmental-health-says-leading-independent-expert/ (cited: Butterworth, Anti BPA Crusade).
Butterworth , Trevor, Mais Non! Europe Gangs Up To Foil France's BPA Ban, published on 3 April 2012, available at: http://www.forbes.com/sites/trevorbutterworth/2012/04/03/mais-non-europe-gangs-up-to-foil-frances-bpa-ban/ (cited: Butterworth, Mais Non!).
Caliendo, Heather, History of BPA, published on Packaging Digest online on 29 June 2012, available at: http://www.packagingdigest.com/article/522115-History_of_BPA.php (cited: Caliendo, History of BPA).
Carrington, Daminan, Bees and the European neonicotinoids pesticide ban: Q&A, The Guardian from 29 April 2013, available at: http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/apr/29/bees-european-neonicotinoids-ban (cited: Carrington, Bees and the neonicotinoids ban).
Chameides, Bill, BPA out, BPS in: The Song Remains the Same, posted on 31 January 2013, available at: http://blogs.nicholas.duke.edu/thegreengrok/bps/ (cited: Chameides, BPA out, BPS in).
Chan, Margaret, Antimicrobial resistance in the European Union and the world: Keynote address by the Director-General of the World Health Organization (WHO) at the conference on Combating antimicrobial resistance, Copenhagen, 14 March 2012, available at: http://www.who.int/dg/speeches/2012/amr_20120314/en/ (cited: Chan, Antimicrobial resistance).
CHEM Trust, CHEM Trust’s position on the REACH review of the authorization of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs), May 2013, available at: http://www.chemtrust.org.uk/documents/CHEM%20Trust%20Briefing%20on%20REACH%20EDC%20review%20FINAL.pdf (cited: CHEM Trust, Position on the REACH review).
Chubb, Ian et. al., The State of Science, A Series published in November 2011, available at: http://theconversation.com/does-australia-care-about-science-4011 (cited: Cubb, et. al., The State of Science).
Cook, Gareth, The Nocebo Effect: How We Worry Ourselves Sick, The New Yorker from 3 April 2013, available at: http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/elements/2013/04/the-nocebo-effect-how-we-worry-ourselves-sick.html (cited: Cook, The Nocebo Effect).
Copa -Cogeca, The Responsible Use Of Antimicrobials In Food-producing Animals: Copa-cogeca’s Views, published on 20 April 2012, available at: http://www.copa-cogeca.be/Download.ashx?ID=909106 (cited: Copa-Cogeca, The Responsible Use of Antimicrobials).
Davis, Charles P./ Stöppler Melissa C., MRSA (Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus) Infections, published on 1 September 2011, available at: http://www.medicinenet.com/mrsa_infection/article.htm (cited: Davis/Stöppler, MRSA Infections).
Entine, Jon, Science Collapse Disorder: The Real Story Behind Neonics And Mass Bee Deaths, posted on Forbes online on 11 April 2013, available at: http://www.forbes.com/sites/jonentine/2013/04/11/science-collapse-disorder-the-real-story-behind-neonics-and-mass-bee-deaths/2/ (cited: Entine, Science Collapse Disorder).
Environmental News Network (ENN), Italy Bans Pesticides Linked to Bee Devastation, published on 19 September 2008, available at: http://www.enn.com/wildlife/article/38233 (cited: ENN, Italy Bans Pesticides).
EurActiv Network, 89 scientists join call for EU action on hormone-disrupting chemicals, published on 24 May 2013, available at: http://www.euractiv.com/health/top-scientists-call-eu-action-ho-news-519969 (cited: EurActiv, 89 scientists join call for EU action).
EurActiv Network, Heated chemicals debate continues with open letter to EU chief scientist, published on 23 July 2013, available at: http://www.euractiv.com/science-policymaking/heated-chemicals-debate-continue-news-529493 (cited: EurActiv, Heated chemicals debate).
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Each day, one in 18 patients in European hospitals has a healthcare-associated infection: ECDC estimates, Press Release of 4 July 2013, available at: http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/press/Press%20Releases/press-release-healthcare-associated-infections-antimicrobial-use-.pdf (cited: ECDC, One in 18 patients).
European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), European Union Risk Assessment Report 4,4'- Isopropyl Idenediphenol (Bisphenol-A) Risk Assessment: Complete risk assessment in one document, February 2010, available at: http://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/c6a8dcfc-1823-4d31-8a24-2c1168f0d217 (cited: ECHA, EU Risk Assessment Report on Bisphenol-A).
European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), Candidate List of Substances of Very High Concern for Authorisation, last updated 20 June 2013, available at: http://echa.europa.eu/de/candidate-list-table (cited: ECHA, Candidate List).
European Commission (EC), Factsheet on EU Action on Pesticides, 2009, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/plant_protection_products/eu_policy/docs/factsheet_pesticides_en.pdf (cited: EC, EU Action on Pesticides).
European Commission (EC), Information on Impact Assessment, last updated on 26 July 2013, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/governance/impact/index_en.htm (cited: EC, Impact Assessment).
European Commission (EC), Comitology Register home page, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regcomitology/index.cfm (cited: EC, Comitology Register home page).
European Commission (EC), Sustainable Use of Pesticides, last updated on 16 December 2009, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ppps/home.htm (cited: EC, Sustainable Use of Pesticides).
European Commission (EC), EU Pesticides database, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/sanco_pesticides/public/index.cfm?event=substance.selection (cited: EC, EU Pesticides database).
European Commission (EC), Ombudsman investigates whether the Commission should do more to combat increased bee mortality, published on the official website of the European Union on 17 April 2012, available at: http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_EO-12-6_en.htm (cited: EC, Ombudsman investigates).
European Commission (EC), Bees & Pesticides: Commission goes ahead with plan to better protect bees, last updated on 30 May 2013, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/liveanimals/bees/neonicotinoids_en.htm (cited: EC, Bees & Pesticides).
European Commission (EC), EU Conference on Endocrine Disruptors: Current challenges in science and policy, last updated on 7 June 2012, available at: http://ihcp.jrc.ec.europa.eu/our_activities/food-cons-prod/endocrine_disrupters/eu-conference-on-endocrine-disruptors-2012 (cited: EC, EU Conference on Endocrine Disruptors).
European Commission (EC), AMR Road map, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/docs/road-map-amr_en.pdf (cited: EC, AMR Road Map).
European Commission (EC), Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP), last updated on 24 July 2013, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/in-focus/ttip/ (cited: EC, Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership).
European Commission (EC), Improvement of Risk Assessment in View of the Needs of Risk Managers and Policy Makers, 2011, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/environmental_risks/docs/scher_o_154.pdf (cited: EC, Improvement of Risk Assessment).
European Container Glass Federation FEVE, BPA banned in more EU countries, Blog in a Bottle entry from 22 January 2013, available at: http://bloginabottle.com/health/bpa-ban-in-eu-countries.html (cited: FEVE, BPA banned in more EU countries).
European Crop Protection Association (ECPA), European Commission will push for a ban on neonicotinoids, published on 29 April 2013, available at: http://www.ecpa.eu/news-item/pesticide-use/04-29-2013/724/european-commission-pushes-ban-neonicotinoids (cited: ECPA, European Commission will push for a ban).
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Food hygiene, last updated on 30 September 2009, available at: http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/food_safety/veterinary_checks_and_food_hygiene/f84001_en.htm (cited: EFSA, Food hygiene).
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Conclusion on the peer review of the pesticide risk assessment for bees for the active substance clothianidin, revised version of 14 March 2013, available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/doc/3066.pdf (cited: EFSA, review on clothianidin).
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Conclusion on the peer review of the pesticide risk assessment for bees for the active substance thiamethoxam, revised version of 14 March 2013, available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/doc/3067.pdf (cited: EFSA, review on thiamethoxam).
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Conclusion on the peer review of the pesticide risk assessment for bees for the active substance imidacloprid, published on 16 January 2013, available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/doc/3068.pdf (cited: EFSA, review on imidacloprid).
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Pesticides and bees: EFSA finalises new guidance, published on 4 July 2013, available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/130704.htm?wtrl=01 (cited: EFSA, Pesticides and bees).
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), FAQ on Bisphenol A, last updated on 26 July 2013, available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/de/faqs/faqbisphenol.htm (cited: EFSA, FAQ on Bisphenol A).
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), FAQ on chemicals in food, last updated on 1 December 2011, available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/faqs/faqchemicalsinfood.htm#14 (cited: EFSA, FAQ on chemicals in food).
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Food Additives, Flavourings, Processing Aids and Materials in Contact with Food on a request from the Commission related to 2,2-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)propane (Bisphenol A), The EFSA Journal, 2006, available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/de/efsajournal/doc/428.pdf (cited: EFSA, Opinion on BPA 2006).
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Food is main source of BPA for consumers, thermal paper also potentially significant, Press Release of 25 July 2013, available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/130725.htm (cited: EFSA, Food is main source of BPA).
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Scientific Opinion on Bisphenol A: evaluation of a study investigating its neurodevelopmental toxicity, review of recent scientific literature on its toxicity and advice on the Danish risk assessment of Bisphenol A, EFSA Journal 2010, available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/doc/1829.pdf (cited: EFSA, Scientific Opinion on Bisphenol A 2010).
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Scientific Report of EFSA and ECDC: The European Union Summary Report on Trends and Sources of Zoonoses, Zoonotic Agents and Food-borne Outbreaks in 2011, EFSA Journal 2013, available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/doc/3129.pdf (cited: EFSA, Summary Report on Trends and Sources of Zoonoses).
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Scientific Report of EFSA and ECDC: The European Union Summary Report on antimicrobial resistance in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food in 2011, EFSA Journal 2013, available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/doc/3196.pdf (cited: EFSA, Summary Report on antimicrobial resistance).
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Meat Inspection, last updated on 27 June 2013, available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/meatinspection.htm (cited: EFSA, Meat Inspection).
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Meat inspection: EFSA completes review of practices and recommends improvements, Press Release from 27 June 2013, available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/130627a.htm (cited: EFSA, Meat inspection recommendations).
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Scientific Opinion on the public health risks of bacterial strains producing extended-spectrum β-lactamases and/or AmpC β-lactamases in food and food-producing animals, EFSA Journal 2011, available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/de/efsajournal/doc/2322.pdf (cited: EFSA, Scientific Opinion on the public health risks of ESBL and/or AmpC).
European Institute of Public Administration (EIPA), Delegated & Implementing Acts: The New Comitology, EIPA Essential Guide, 4th edition, December 2011, available at: http://www.eipa.eu/files/repository/product/20111212085434_Comitology_Brochure4EN_web.pdf (cited: EIPA, Delegated & Implementing Acts).
European Medicines Agency (EMA), Good-manufacturing-practice and good-distribution-practice compliance, available at: http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/regulation/document_listing/document_listing_000154.jsp (cited: EMA, Good-manufacturing-practice).
Gateau , Christine et. al., Will French action on Bisphenol A lead to an EU-wide ban? Published on 8 July 2013, available at: http://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=fc4aeb99-87fc-42ec-9f08-81582c46b1a1 (cited: Gateau et. al., French action on Bisphenol A).
Gilbert, Natasha, Antibiotic resistance marching across Europe: Multimillion-euro research initiative set up to address the problem, Nature News from 22 November 2011, available at: http://www.nature.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-marching-across-europe-1.9413 (cited: Gilbert, Antibiotic resistance marching across Europe).
Guldberg, Helene, Challenging the precautionary principle: How has society come to be governed by the maxim 'better safe than sorry'?, Spiked online from 1 July 2003, available at: http://www.spiked-online.com/newsite/article/5085#.UfQ5cG3OJxU (cited: Guldberg, Challenging the precautionary principle).
Harrington, Rory, Denmark bans Bisphenol A in food packaging for young children, published on 30 March 2010, available at: http://www.foodproductiondaily.com/Safety-Regulation/Denmark-bans-bisphenol-A-in-food-packaging-for-young-children (cited: Harrington, Denmark bans Bisphenol A).
Health and Environment Alliance (HEAL), European food panel fails to protect EU citizen’s health from plastic component, BPA, Press Release from 30 September 2010, available at: http://env-health.org/IMG/pdf/30092010_EFSA_NGO_response_re_BPA_FINAL.pdf (cited: HEAL, European food panel fails to protect EU citizen’s health).
Health and Environment Alliance (HEAL), Joint NGO letter to President Barroso and Commissioners: Call to reduce our exposure to EDCs, 7 May 2013, available at: http://www.env-health.org/resources/letters/article/joint-ngo-letter-to-president (cited: HEAL, Joint NGO letter).
Hertwig, Daniel, Pestizid-Hersteller wollte kritischen Forscher ruhig stellen, published on 18 June 2013, available at: http://www.keine-gentechnik.de/news-gentechnik/news/de/27694.html (cited: Hertwig, Pestizid-Hersteller wollte Forscher ruhig stellen).
HSE Ireland, Healthcare-Associated Infection and Antimicrobial Resistance: A National Strategy, November 2007, available at: http://www.hse.ie/eng/services/Publications/HealthProtection/Health_Care_Associated_Infection/Say_No_to_Infection_A_National_Strategy_Nov_2007.pdf (cited: HSE Ireland, Healthcare-Associated Infection).
Independent Media Center (IMC) UK, Bayer's top-selling pesticides continue to cause bee deaths worldwide, posted on 23 November 2011, available at: http://www.indymedia.org.uk/en/regions/world/2011/11/489029.html (cited: IMC UK, Bayer’s top-selling pesticides).
International Risk Governance Council (IRGC), White Paper on Risk Governance: towards an integrative approach, 2005, available at: http://www.irgc.org/IMG/pdf/IRGC_WP_No_1_Risk_Governance__reprinted_version_.pdf (cited: IRGC, White Paper on Risk Governance).
Johnson, Reed M. et. al., Acaricide, Fungicide and Drug Interactions in Honey Bees (Apis mellifera), PLoS ONE 2013, available at: http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0054092 (cited: Johnson et. al., Acaricide, Fungicide and Drug Interactions).
Jolly, David, Europe Bans Pesticides Thought Harmful to Bees, The New York Times (Digital Edition), published on 29 April 2013, available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/30/business/global/30iht-eubees30.html?_r=0 (cited: Jolly, Europe Bans Pesticides).
Koning, Ross E., The Scientific Method, Plant Physiology Information Website from 1994, available at: http://plantphys.info/plants_human/scimeth.shtml (cited: Koning, The Scientific Method).
Kysar, Douglas A., It Might Have Been: Risk, Precaution, and Opportunity Costs, Faculty Scholarship Series, Paper 378, 2006, available at: http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/378 (cited: Kysar, It might have been).
Like, Chris, Scientifically Proven is an Oxymoron, The Teacher's Water Cooler Blog, entry from 19 February 2013, available at: http://teacherswatercooler.blogspot.ch (cited: Like, Scientifically Proven is an Oxymoron).
MacGuill, Dan, Medication 'kills 18,000 each year' in France, The Local from 27 May 2013, available at: http://www.thelocal.fr/20130527/medication-kills-more-than-road-deaths-and-suicides-in-france (cited: MacGuill, Medication kills).
Midgley, Olivia, 'Disappointment' as MEPs vote to stop use of antibiotics, published on 28 October 2011, available at: http://www.farmersguardian.com/home/livestock/disappointment-as-meps-vote-to-stop-use-of-antibiotics/42575.article (cited: Midgley, Disappointment).
Ministère des Affaires sociales et de la Santé (MSSS), 2011-2016 National Antibiotic Plan, English Version, 21 December 2011, available at: http://www.sante.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/presentation_plan_2011_2016_anglais_21122011.pdf (cited : MSSS, National Antibiotic Plan).
More, Max, The Perils of Precaution, 2010, available at: http://www.maxmore.com/perils.htm (cited: More, Perils of Precaution).
National Office of Animal Health (NOAH), Antibiotics for Animals: An Overview, last updated in June 2010, available at: http://www.noah.co.uk/issues/briefingdoc/06-antib.htm (cited: NOAH, Antibiotics for Animals).
Natural News Network, BPA news, articles and information, available at: http://www.naturalnews.com/BPA.html (cited: Natural News Network, BPA news).
Noleppa, Steffen/Hahn, Thomas, The value of Neonicotinoid seed treatment in the European Union: A socio-economic, technological and environmental review, Humboldt Forum for Food and Agriculture e.V. Working Paper 01/2013, available at: http://www.hffa.info/files/wp_1_13_1.pdf (cited: Noleppa/Hahn, The value of Neonicotinoid seed treatment).
O'Connor, Anahad, Winning the MRSA Battle in Hospitals, published on 29 May 2013, available at: http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/05/29/winning-the-mrsa-battle-in-hospitals/?_r=1 (cited: O’Connor, Winning the MRSA battle).
O’Neil, Brendan, Mobile phones are safe, but let's panic anyway, Spiked online from 13 September 2007, available at: http://www.spiked-online.com/index.php?/site/earticle/3819/ (cited: O’Neil, Mobile phones).
Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Europe, PAN-Europe opinion on the Humboldt report on “The value of Neonicotinoids seed treatment in the European Union”, published on 5 March 2013, available at: http://www.pan-europe.info/Resources/briefings.html (cited: PAN Europe, Opinion on the Humboldt report).
Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Europe, EFSA shows high risks for bees from neonicotinoids: Commissioner Borg to immediately withdraw these bee killing pesticides from the market, Press Release from 16 January 2013, available at: http://www.pan-europe.info/News/PR/130116.html (cited: PAN Europe, EFSA shows high risks).
Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Europe, PAN Europe challenges European Commission to go further on neonicotinoids, Press Release from 4 July 2013, available at: http://www.pan-europe.info/News/PR/130704.html (cited: PAN Europe, PAN challenges European Commission).
Pettis, Jeffery S. et. al., Crop pollination exposes honey bees to pesticides which alters their susceptibility to the gut pathogen nosema ceranae, PLoS ONE, 2013, available at: http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0070182 (cited: Pettis et. al., Crop pollination exposes honey bees to pesticides).
PlasticsEurope, Bisphenol-A and REACH, available at: http://www.bisphenol-a-europe.org/en_GB/legislation/reach (cited: PlasticsEurope, Bisphenol-A and REACH).
PlasticsEurope, Myths and facts on Bisphenol-A (BPA), available at: http://www.bisphenol-a-europe.org/en_GB/myths/myths-v-facts (cited: PlasticsEurope, Myths and facts on BPA).
Princeton University, Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Weekly Lecture Summaries, Psychology (WWS 502), last updated on 27 October 2010, available at: http://www.princeton.edu/wwac/academic-review/files/502-Weekly-lecture-summaries.pdf (cited: Princeton University, Psychology Lecture).
Ray, Daryll E., Producers argue for sound science, some consumers prefer precautionary principle, 2005, available at: http://www.agpolicy.org/weekcol/275.html (cited: Ray, Producers argue for Sound Science).
Schnurr, Eva-Maria, Leere Versprechen, Die Zeit online vom 27 Mai 2010, available at: http://www.zeit.de/2010/22/E-Vitamine (cited: Schnurr, Leere Versprechen).
Schout, Adriaan, “Framework for assessing the added value of an EU agency”, 2011, available at: http://www.clingendael.nl/sites/default/files/20110800_agencies_schout.pdf / (cited: Schout, Framework for assessing the added value).
Segnana, Oliver, The Precautionary Principle: New Developments in the Case Law of the Court of First Instance, GLJ, 2002, available at: http://www.germanlawjournal.com/index.php?pageID=11&artID=198 (cited: Segnana, The Precautionary Principle)
Senden, Linda, Soft Law, Self-regulation and Co-regulation in European Law: Where Do They Meet? EJCL, 2005, available at: http://ejcl.org/91/art91-3.html (cited: Senden, Soft Law).
Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), Sound Science Technical Issue Paper, 1999, available at: http://www.setac.org/resource/resmgr/publications_and_resources/setac_tip_soundsci.pdf (cited: SETAC, Sound Science Technical Issue Paper).
[...]
-
-
-
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X. -
-
Téléchargez vos propres textes! Gagnez de l'argent et un iPhone X.