Secularism and South Asia. Principles and Practices

Wissenschaftlicher Aufsatz , 2024 , 17 Seiten

Politik - Region: Südasien

The goal of the book chapter is to look at South Asian secularism’s principles and practices. In the contemporary world, secularism is a crucial component of the political system. The majority of Asia nations structure their political systems around their own religions. In this instance, the book chapter discusses important ideas including politics, religion, the definition of a secular state, and the distinction between secularism and theocracy. After defining the fundamental terms, this chapter will explain how the constitution of the South Asian state was based on religion and what the current state of affairs is with regard to the safeguarding of the idea of secularism in South Asian religion.

Secularism and South Asia

J.H.S.T. Jayamaha

M. Phil (reading) in Political Science, B.A (Sp) in Political Science, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Abstract

The goal of the book chapter is to look at South Asian secularism’s principles and practices. In the contemporary world, secularism is a crucial component of the political system. The majority of Asia nations structure their political systems around their own religions. In this instance, the book chapter discusses important ideas including politics, religion, the definition of a secular state, and the distinction between secularism and theocracy. After defining the fundamental terms, this chapter will explain how the constitution of the South Asian state was based on religion and what the current state of affairs is with regards to the safeguarding of the idea of secularism in South Asian religion.

Key words: Secularism/South Asia/Religion/Theocracy/Constitutions

1. Introduction

The chapter emphasizes secularism, a key component of modern democracy. The main objective of this chapter is to define the relationship between religion and politics in the South Asian region, especially in the context of the constitutional provisions. As the article progresses, it will describe and critically analyze secularism, theocracy, major religions, and the implications of the constitution in South Asian countries.

2. Defining basic concepts: Politics, Religion and Secularism

There is a deep meaning to the word politics, which can be viewed as a form of social interaction. It associates with a world of flux, tensions, and transition. Furthermore, politics is defined as a:

Game of power

Policy-making process

Social practice

Dynamic process and

Politics involves changes that change can be global or domestic.

Based on Aristotle, we all are political animals or creatures. We try to remove ourselves from politics would be to remove ourselves from the world of our existence. However, defining politics arises a series of difficult questions. ‘ The Cambridge Dictionary defined politics as ‘the activities of the government, members of law-making organizations or people who try to influence the way a country is governed.’

Indeed, the debate about ‘what is politics’ is one of the laborious questions to answer. ‘Andrew Heywood’ has defined politics in four ways. As reported by chart number 1 Politics is associated with an arena or location in which case behavior becomes political. Because of where it takes place. In the second, politics is viewed as a process or mechanism in which case political behavior is behavior that exhibits distinctive characteristics or qualities and so can take place in any, and perhaps all, social contexts.

Generally, arises out of the interaction between or among people and it develops diversity the existence of a range of opinions, needs, or interests. So, if we do not take part in politics, others will influence the decisions that govern our life (Heywood, 2013).

The ‘ Cambridge Dictionary defined religion as the belief in and the worship of a god or gods or any such system of belief and worship . The term religion is used to describe time-honored actions and beliefs that are aimed at connecting people, and it is rooted in rational aspirations, linked with emotional attachments inspired by some external idea or force, and connected with what people believe represents their cultural, communal, and individual truth.

Emile Durkheim defined religion as a system around the sanctuary, which is a system of belief, practices, and social behaviors that unites individuals in a moral community . As a concept, it is usually used to describe religious experiences, ideas, rituals, arts, traditions, and people of faith.

The fundamental concept of this chapter is ‘Secularism’ which means the separation of religion from politics. Further, it suggests that religion should not enter or interfere with the domain of politics, and politics should not interfere with religion. Also, it can describe as one of the best-known ideologies of political science. Indeed, there is a vital relationship between religion and politics due to,

Clergies’ influence on politics

Belief in gods

Conducting a close relationship between people and clergies.

The term Secularism was introduced by George Holyoake in 1846, defining it as best indicating the province of human duty which belongs to this life (Philips, 2011). Moreover, the contemporary French scholar of secularism ‘Jean Bauberot’ mentioned three parts of secularism.

a) Separation of religious institutions from the institutions of the state and no domination of the political sphere by a religious institution,

b) Freedom of thought, conscience, and religion for all with everyone free to change their belief and manifest their beliefs within the limits of public order and their rights of theirs,

c) No state discrimination against anyone on grounds of their religion or non-religious worldwide view, with everyone receiving equal treatment on these grounds (Copson, 2019).

Charles Taylor has defined Secularism in his article ‘how to define Secularism’ as ‘Secularism is mainly controlling religion, and the main point of secularist regime is to manage the religious and metaphysical, philosophical diversity of views fairly and democratically’. In the 18 ^th century separation of church and state first became a constitutional feature of some westernized countries. This ideology has developed by two political ideologies as follows.

a) Liberal political ideology: Secularism is a part of human freedom, and it should not identify itself with or favor, any religion. Otherwise, religion is a personal matter, in the private domain, and not the public domain. Equal treatment of the state for religion.

b) Socialist political ideology: Karl Marx considered religion as an instrument of social oppression. Not only that in a socialist society religious institutions are allowed to function only if they are not a threat to socialism, they can function only under strict state control.

Therefore secularism is the belief that religion should not intrude into secular affairs, usually reflected in the desire to separate church from state. Moreover, secular states can divide into two stages. The first stage is the early French and Turkish Models. By this model, religion is excluded from control and regulation. Sometimes even destroy them. And these types of states are anti-religious. The second form of state is the American model. Under this model, religious and political institutions live as strangers to each other, at best with benign or respectful indifferences. On this conception of secularism, religion must be outside the purview of the state. These states are not antireligious, but give religion a particular form, protecting religious liberty, liberty more generally, and the equality of citizenship. The ideology of secularism has consisted of significant features.

Secularism is not Atheism: Atheism is the belief that there is no god or gods (Baggini, 2003). Secularists only need to separate the state and religion, but lots of campaigners for secularism are well-known atheists.

Secularism is not Humanism: Humanism is an ethical philosophy that addresses how to live a good life without religion.

Therefore, we can be humanists, atheists, and secularists at the same time if you choose, but these three things are not the same. In summary, a secular state should contain these components.

1) A separation of church and state,

2) The state is not to legislate based on any religion,

3) The state does not recognize, financially support, or subsidies any religion,

4) There should be freedom of religion,

5) There should be the free exercise of religious practice subject only to certain restrictions in the interest of public order,

6) A principle of religious toleration (Phillips, August 2011).

3. Theocracy and Secularism

The opposite version of secularism is theocracy which means government by gods. According to Mario Ferrero (2009) defined, “God does not rule government directly, but there is a group of the clergy or self-appointed group who claims to speak and act on god’s behalf”. Apart from that, in 2009 N. Megoran discussed three definitions of theocracy in his article, one of which is ‘Theocracy at first appears to be a simple concept clerics ruling state instead of say the general population via a professional class of politicians (Democracy) or hereditary potentates advised by appointed specialists (Monarchy)’.

Jeff Haynes defines secularism as an interrelated concept including three features, the state, Religion, and politics. It was a triadic relationship as follows.

Firstly, theocracy appeared in the classical period (Greece). They had public temples, religious festivals, and religious occasions to celebrate. Greece gods and goddesses were not involved in politics. The people’s voice was one of the main parts of this society. Aristotle mentioned that the purpose of the state (city-state) was ‘the best and highest life possible, but one of the vital facts was that voting rights of women, slaves, and children had prohibited. Along with these, politics have lots of systems of government same as the theocratic system. For examples,

a) The monarch of the United Kingdom is crowned by the country’s senior cleric (the Archbishop of Canterbury),

b) Some other clerics have seats in the upper chamber of the parliament (The House of Lords),

c) Saudi Arabia enforces a strict form of adherence to a variant of Islamic Sharia law, and

d) Even Bhutan also can be recognized as a religious country, because the majority represent the Buddhist people.

Roman Empire is an influencing era of religion and politics. The story of the Jewish Peacher can recognize as an example. After the death of the Jewish, followers of him thought that 'he was Jesus Christ.' With this incident, religion began to influence the state laws and the interaction of the three main features of roman life.

a) People

b) Law

c) power

Thenceforth, priests had been appointed by the government. Christianity played an increasingly important role in the Roman Empire. The Holy See was the legacy of the Roman period. It defines the government of the Roman Catholic Church which is led by the pope as the bishop of Rome. Meanwhile, it also engaged in diplomatic exchanges with rulers and states.

When coming to medieval times, academic scholars who lived in this period started to write about the state and religion. Namely, Christian thinker bishop Augustine wrote ‘City of god’ to show the close link between religion and politics. Later, Thomas Aquinas began to write about the relationship between the state and religion. The book 'Summa Theologica' gives Thomas Aquinas’s thoughts on Christianity and the state during this period (Copson,

2019), between the end of the ancient world and the beginning of the early modern world, Christianity was a political force as a religion. The divine theory had been used to describe the beginning of the state. Through this theory, supporters of the Christian religion built up the argument that ‘the state was a creation of God."

With the beginning of the industrial revolution, the Divine theory had challenged by scholars. In 1517, the German priest Martin Luther protested what saw as theological errors in the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church. As a part of his project of challenging the Church, he contributed seriously to resolving the centuries-old ambiguity of Church-state relations within Christianity. Furthermore, the English thinker John Locke introduced a new idea of separation between religion and politics. The book ‘on the difference between civil and ecclesia stoical power (1974)’ elaborated on his ideas. As a part of this project, Locke further addressed how government should deal with competing religions among citizens in his book ‘A letter concerning toleration (1689)’.

Due to these incidents, secularism came forward against the idea of theocracy. Now we are living in a pluralist society. Therefore, most countries are proclaiming the concept of secularism. Hereafter, this chapter will discuss the ideology of secularism based on the constitutional provisions and practical exercises as a reference to South Asia.

4. A brief introduction to South Asia

South Asia is one of the vital regions of the world. It consists of seven countries, including the Maldives, Bhutan, Nepal, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. The geo-political accepts of South Asia became an influencing region in world politics because of its critical links. Significant facts about South Asia,

a) Fastest growing economies in the world with a gross average of 7.1% GDP growth,

b) Population (1.8 billion people) - it houses one-fourth of the global humanity,

c) It is home to very young people - 40% of South Asia’s population is in the youth category,

d) Different cultural backgrounds,

e) One of the world’s most volatile regions and dominated by the United States,

f) This is an inflection point with far-reaching implications for the state in the religion and India in particular,

g) located land lock states like Bhutan and Nepal

h) Impact of the Indian Ocean

i) Foreign policy with Non-alignment movements

With these factors, South Asia became a vital pillar of the world's economy and political process. Indeed, not only these two factors, the South Asian region has critical links with their cultures. South Asia region can be defined as a melting pot of variant religions as follows.

Religion is a crucial part of South Asia. This chart shows us the population of Asia by religion. The major religions in South Asia are Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, Christianity, and Sikhism.

5. Islam and the Constitutional practices

Most of the fundamental concepts of Islam has contained in the Quraan, the Islamic Holy book. Among eight countries of South Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Maldives, and Bangladesh can recognize as Islamic states. We need to know the constitutional provisions of the Islamic state to understand secularism in Islamic states.

Four countries listed above considered Islam their state religion, but implementing secularism has been hindered by these constitutional barriers. According to the constitution of Pakistan, there is a vital relationship between religion and politics. The beginning of the constitution of Pakistan has been mentioned as ‘The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.; Indeed, not only Pakistan the most countries are recognized as Islamic countries due to their constitutional practices. Thus, the country’s population also be a reason for shaping its constitutional provisions. The population in Pakistan is as follows.

Under article no. 2, the constitution of Pakistan has declared that the state religion is Islam.

“Islam shall be the state religion of Pakistan” (The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, 2012).

As Aristotle would say a constitution is a kind of life and a form of government is the expression of the kind of life that the state is designed to foster. The constitution of a country should try to reflect the ideals on which people need to base their political life. It should try to implement the objectives which embody the aspiration of the nation.

Further, the constitution of Pakistan shows the way people live. For example: in chapter II, the Islamic way of life (under article 31),

Article 31. (1) Steps shall be taken to enable the Muslims of Pakistan, individually and collectively, to order their lives following the fundamental principles and basic concepts of Islam and to provide facilities whereby they may be enabled to understand the meaning of life according to the Holy Quran and Sunnah.

(2) The state shall endeavor, concerning the Muslims of Pakistan-

a) to make the teaching of the Holy Quran and Islamiat compulsory, to encourage and facilitate the learning of the Arabic language, and to secure correct and exact printing and publishing of the Holy Quran.

b) to promote unity and the observance of Islamic moral standards; and

c) to secure the proper organization of Zakat and mosques (The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, 2012).

Apart from that only Muslims can serve as president and prime minister. Article 2 of the Pakistani constitution establishes Islam as the state religion. Article 20 nominally protects religious freedom by prohibiting faith-based discrimination and guaranteeing the right to religious practices and religious education. The constitution reserves 10 seats for religious minorities in the National Assembly, 4 seats in the Senate, and 23 seats in four provincial assemblies.

When declaring the practical situation in Pakistan, Pakistani politicians practice Islam as the state ideology. Thus, Islam held by the Ulama also be a part of Pakistan politics. In fact, Pakistani leaders have been using religious sentiments to strengthen the state's identity. Otherwise, they also practice Islamic law like sharia law and Customary Muslim law.

Religious values have also played a significant role in shaping major political parties. For instance;

1) The Jamaat-i-Islami (JI): is one of the most articulate Islamic parties in Pakistan and was founded in 1941 in Lahore by Maulana Maududi. He emerged as the ideology of the doctrinal Islamic state.

2) The Jamiat-ul-ulema-i-Islam: this party is another Islamic party that represents the Deobandi School of Islamic revivalism. It emphasizes a more puritanical form of Islamic government (Leonard, 1961).

Bangladesh is also one of the Islamic states in South Asia. The beginning of the constitution of Bangladesh mentioned Islamic values.

(BISMILLAH-AR-RAHMAN-AR-RAHIM)

(In the name of Allah, the beneficent the merciful) / (In the name of the creator, the Merciful)

(The Constitution of the people’s republic of Bangladesh, 2004).

Further, the constitution under Article 2A has defined the state religion as follows.

“The state religion of the Republic is Islam, but the state shall ensure equal status and equal right in the practice of the Hindu, Buddhist, Christian, and other religions”

Compared with the Pakistan constitution, the constitution of Bangladesh has emphasized equal rights for other religions to practice their beliefs. Thus, under the fundamental principle of state policy, the Constitution has included some provisions for the secular state.

Article 12. The principle of secularism shall be realized by the elimination of,

a) Communalism in all its forms;

b) The granting by the state of political status in favor of any religion;

c) The abuse of religion for a political purpose;

d) any discrimination against, or persecution of, persons practicing a particular religion (The Constitution of the people’s republic of Bangladesh, 2004)

As a sovereign nation, Bangladesh was created in 1971 when the founding father is ‘Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’ incorporated secularism as one of the fundamental principles of state policy. Mujibur Rahman would protect and promote all religions at the societal level, but prevent their entry into politics.

“Secularism does not mean the absence of religion. The 75 million people of Bengal will have the right to religion. We do not ban religion by law. We have no intention of that kind. Muslims/Hindus and Buddhism will observe their religion and nobody in this state has the power to prevent that. Our only objection is that nobody will be allowed to use religion as a political weapon” (Rafiuddin, 1990).

Further, he established the concept of ‘multi-theocracy’ in Bangladesh. This concept only discredited Sheikh Mujib’s brand of secularism. However, under the political leadership, the religious values of Islam came forward in Bangladesh politics. Politicians are also exploiting religion to secure their careers in addition to these circumstances. For example:

National Awami Party (NAL) – resorted to a new theme, namely “Dharma, Karma, Samajathanthra: NAP-er Tin Mantra” (Religion, Hard work, and socialism are the Three principle of the NAP) (Rafiuddin, 1990).

Moreover, Afghanistan and Maldives' constitutional practices also belong to the religion. For Example, the constitution of Afghanistan starts with the term Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. The relationship between religion and state is explained in the constitution under the heading ‘we are the people of Afghanistan.’

a) Believing firmly in Almighty God, relying on His divine will, and adhering to the Holy religion of Islam;

b) Realizing the previous injustices, miseries, and innumerable disasters which have befallen our country;

c) Appreciating the sacrifices, historical struggles, jihad, and just resistance of all the peoples of Afghanistan, admiring the supreme position of the martyrs of the country’s freedom;

d) Comprehending that a united, indivisible Afghanistan belongs to all its tribes and peoples;

e) Observing the United Nations Charter as well as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (The constitution of Afghanistan, 2004).

Afghanistan can be considered an influencing state in the modern era because the Taliban in Afghanistan are fighting to establish their religious state. Most recently, they created the Taliban’s religious roadmap for Afghanistan. What do they implement through their map? The Taliban rules are setting the foundational rules to transform their religious movement into a permanent ideology: Talibanism

a) The Taliban rulers are revalidating themselves as a vanguard for a true Islamic leadership of Afghanistan.

b) The Taliban rules are re-engineering the principles of Afghanistan nationalism to comport with Islamic nationalism (Ahmad, 2022).

Further, Maldives is an Islamic state. The constitutional provisions of Maldives Article No. 10 has been mentioned the state religion as follows.

“The religion of the state of the Maldives is Islam. Islam shall be one of the bases of all the laws of the Maldives” (The Constitution of the Republic of Maldives, 2008).

The most important fact is that the constitution does not provide any chance to practice other religions, and all the laws base on Islamic or Sharia law. Maldives is a 100% Muslim nation. Due to the above facts, most South Asian countries are practicing religious values (Islamic values) in the political context.

6. Hinduism and the Constitutional practices

In addition to what has been stated, Indian Secularism (Hinduism) is vital to discuss due to its democratic values. Otherwise, Indian society compromises with pluralist concepts. Like the western countries, the Indian constitution respects the idea of secularism. There are two kinds of meanings for Indian secularism.

1) Treating all religions equally. (Dharma Nirapekshatha)

2) the second concept is ‘Sarva Dharma Sambhawa’

The Indian constitution does not mention an official language and in this case, there were two prominent independence campaigners involved, namely Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964), and Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948). Neera Chandoke defined Mohandas Gandhi’s statement for the idea of secularism in 1999 in her book ‘Beyond Secularism.’

“I used to be troubled sometimes at the growth of this religious element in our politics, both on the Hindu and the Muslim side. I did not like it at all”

Thus, the freedom of religion has been discussed by the constitution of India as follows.

Article 25. Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice, and propagation of religion

26. Freedom to manage religious affairs

27. Freedom as to payment of taxes for the promotion of any particular religion

28. Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions.

If there are relevant provisions for protecting the concept of secularism in India that has been criticized by lots of scholars due to practical experiences of Indian society.

1) Awaking movements of Hindu Nationalism: Academic writers Ashis Nandy, T.N. Madan, and Partha Chatterjee discussed this movement in their research. The Hindu Nationalist movement came up with Hindu Nationalist Ideology which means ‘Hindutva; who is a Hindu?’ in the 1920s by V.D. Savakar

2) Majority-based party politics – ‘Bharathiya Janatha Party’

3) The launch of the Ayodya movement

7. Buddhism and the Constitutional practices

Buddhism is one of the influencing religions in South Asia. Sri Lanka and Bhutan also practice the values of Buddhism as the state religion. When explaining the situation of Sri Lanka, the majority are Sinhalese Buddhists.

In Sri Lanka, the constitutional arrangement on religion gave Buddhism, the religion of the majority, the ‘foremost place’ in both Republican constitutions in 1972 and 1978. Sri Lanka’s Independence constitution (1948) embodied the law concerning religion in Section 29(2), prohibiting the parliament from enacting bills that would:

a) Prohibit or restrict the free exercise of any religion; or

b) Make persons of any community or religion liable to disabilities or restrictions to which persons of other communities or religions are not made liable (The 1948 Constitution).

According to the 1972 and 1978 constitutions Buddhism received constitutional cognizance for the first time in Sri Lanka’s constitutional history. Thus, the official language of Sri Lanka shall be Sinhala which is the first language and Tamil and English shall be the second and third place.

“The Republic of Sri Lanka shall give to Buddhism the foremost place and accordingly it shall be the duty of the State to protect and foster the Buddha Sasana while assuring to all religions the rights granted by Articles 10 and 14(1)(e)” (The constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka).

Moreover, Buddhist monks are playing a significant role in the politics of Sri Lanka. For instance, All Ceylon Buddhist Congress (ACBC)/in 1950 Mahabodhi society of Ceylon/ Appointed Buddha Sasana Commission/ Eksath Bhikku Peramuna (EBP)/ Sinhala Jathika Sangamaya (SJS)/ Jathika Hela Urumaya/ Sinhale Organization so on. Not only that former president Mahinda Rajapaksa and their alliance are also using Buddhist values as an election-winning tool. In the 2019 presidential election, the symbol was a water lily that has a strong link with the birth of Buddha.

The Bhutan majority is also Buddhist. The government generally respects the freedom of religion. Mahayana Buddhism is the state’s spiritual heritage although citizens of the other part belong to Hinduism. This country is a constitutional monarchy and constitutional mandates that the king is the protector of all religions.

Under Article 3: 1. Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of Bhutan, which promotes the principles and values of peace, non-violence, Compassion, and tolerance.

2. The Druk Gyalpo is the protector of all religions in Bhutan (The Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan).

Nepal is also a secular state. The constitution of Nepal stipulates every person has the right to profess, practice, and protect his or her religion.

Article 3. Nation: All the Nepali people, with multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious, multicultural characteristics and geographical diversities, having common aspirations and being united by a bond of allegiance to the national independence, territorial integrity, national interest, and prosperity of Nepal, collectively constitute the nation (The Constitution of Nepal, 2015).

Nepal became a secular State under the promulgation of the Interim Constitution of Nepal, in 2007, which marked the end of a ten-year-long armed conflict. Before that, Nepal had been an official Hindu State since 1962 as declared by the then Constitution, and an unofficial Hindu State before that time. In recent years, there has also been an increase in communal tensions in the country. For example, certain Hindu groups have started declaring ‘Religion Conversion Restricted Zones’ in at least three different locations, including in the cities of Butawal, 184 kilometers to the West of Kathmandu, and Bhaktapur, 15 kilometers to the East of Nepal’s capital. Those carrying out such acts appear to be emboldened by new legal provisions in the Constitution that prohibit” conversion”, giving them a cloak of legitimacy.

8. Conclusion

The ideology of secularism plays a significant role within the South Asian Context because of its practices. The constitutions of most South Asian countries reflect the values and beliefs of their religious communities. Therefore, there is a vital and brawny relationship between politics and religion. Conducting Democratic principles of secularism is an essential part. One interesting fact is that India, Nepal, and Bhutan have recognized their state as secular nations on a constitutional basis, but practically continuing that concept has become a cumbrous process.

As a final statement, I contend that South Asian societies have not practiced secularism in the true sense of the word. This is because South Asian nations have a greater variety of cultural values and traditions than Western nations. As a tool of power-capturing, religion has unfortunately been appropriate. Therefore, most political leaders do not need to separate religion from politics in their indentures.

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• Autor: Sakunthala Jayamaha (Autor:in)
• Erscheinungsjahr: 2024
• Seiten: 17
• Katalognummer: V1436985
• ISBN (PDF): 9783963553301
• Sprache: Englisch
• Schlagworte: secularism, south, asia, principles, practices