The main objective of this study is to investigate the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers in terms of identifying the degree of practicing these competencies from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students of English departments, and the chairmen of English departments with a view to designing a proposed training programme which aims at developing the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers.
The study primarily adopted the descriptive design and the quantitative approach. The data were collected through a questionnaire which consisted of (73) teaching competencies distributed among five main domains: planning teaching; implementing teaching; using technology; human relations; and assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback. After making sure of its validity and reliability, it was administered to three Yemeni public universities (Sana’a University, Aden University, and Taiz University). The sample consisted of (49) Yemeni university English teachers, (590) students of level four, and (6) chairmen of English departments. The data collected were computed and analyzed using the Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows (version 17.0).
The study revealed that the degree of practicing Yemeni university English teachers for the teaching competencies is low. It also revealed that there were statistically significant differences in the means of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers according to the variable of sample type (university English teachers, students, and chairmen of English departments) at the (0.05) level of significance. These significant differences were found in the means of the target sample responses between teachers and students on the one hand and between students and chairmen on the other hand. However, no statistically significant differences were found in the means of responses between teachers and chairmen or according to the variable of geography. Based on the study results, which highlighted the need of Yemeni university English teachers for training in teaching, a training programme was proposed. Besides, some recommendations to be considered to improve the teaching and learning process in the English departments of Yemeni universities and suggestions for further research were given.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION
ACKOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONETETS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER I:INTRODUCTION
1.1.Introduction
1.2.Statement of the Problem
1.3.Objectives of the Study
1.4.Significance of the Study
1.5.Scope and Delimitations
1.6.Definition of Terms
1.7.Organization of the Study
CHAPTER II:THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1.Introduction
2.2.University Functions
2.3.The Concept of Teaching
2.3.1.The nature of university teaching
2.3.2.The changing perspectives towards university teaching
2.3.3.University teachers of 21st century
2.3.4.Teaching English in English departments of Yemeni universities
2.3.5.Teaching competencies
2.3.6.The nature of teaching competencies
2.3.7.The importance of possessing teaching competencies
2.4.Teaching Competencies Domains of the Proposed Training Programme
2.4.1.Planning teaching
2.4.2.Implementing teaching
2.4.2.1.Physical classroom environment
2.4.2.2.Instructional strategies
2.4.2.3.Communication
2.4.2.3.1.Nonverbal communication
2.4.2.3.2.Verbal communication
2.4.3.Using technology
2.4.3.1.The computer
2.4.3.1.1.Stages of using computer in language learning
2.4.3.1.2.Multimedia
2.4.3.2.The Internet
2.4.3.2.1.Synchronous tools
2.4.3.2.2.Asynchronous tools
2.4.3.2.3.Synchronous and asynchronous tools
2.4.4.Human relations
2.4.5.Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback
2.4.5.1.Formative assessment
2.4.5.2.Summative assessment
2.4.5.3.Teaching, courses, and tests evaluation
2.5.Training
2.5.1.The concept of training
2.5.2.Teachers’ need for training
2.5.3.Significance of training for teachers
2.5.4.Making training effective
2.5.5.Strategies and techniques for delivering training
2.5.6.Types of training
2.5.6.1.Formal training vs. informal training
2.5.6.2.Pre-service training vs. in-service training
2.5.7.Teacher training in higher education
2.5.8.Training programme
2.5.8.1.The concept of training programme
2.5.8.2.Principles of designing training programme
2.5.8.3.The general framework for designing a training programme
2.5.8.4.Designing a training programme for professional development of university teachers
2.5.8.4.1.Analysis stage
2.5.8.4.2.Design stage
2.5.8.4.3.Implementation stage
2.5.8.4.4.Evaluation stage
2.5.8.5.Designing a training session plan
CHAPTER III: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
3.1.Introduction
3.2.Previous Studies Related to Teaching Competencies or Skills
3.2.1.Arabic studies
3.2.2.Foreign studies
3.3.Previous Studies Related to Designing or Evaluating Teacher Training Programmes
3.3.1.Arabic studies
3.3.2.Foreign studies
3.4.Previous Studies Discussion
3.4.1.Objectives
3.4.2.Sample
3.4.3.Tools used to collect data
3.4.4.Results
3.4.5.Benefits of the previous studies
CHAPTER IV: METHODOLOGY & PROCEDURES
4.1.Introduction
4.2.The Study Approach and Design
4.3.The Study Population and Sample
4.4.The Study Instrument
4.4.1.Constructing the study instrument
4.4.2.Verifying the validity of the study instrument
4.4.3.Conducting a pilot study
4.4.4.Measuring the reliability of the study instrument
4.4.5.Administration of the Study Instrument
4.5.The Proposed Training Programme
4.5.1.Constructing the proposed training programme
4.5.1.1.Preparing the first version of the proposed training programme
4.5.1.2.Verifying the validity of the proposed training programme
4.5.1.3.Preparing the final version of the proposed training programme
4.6.Statistical Tools Used in the Study
CHAPTER V: PRESENTATION & DISCUSSION OF FININDINGS
5.1.Introduction
5.2.Presentation and discussion of findings
5.2.1.The first question
5.2.1.1.The first domain: Planning teaching
5.2.1.2.The second domain: Implementing teaching
5.2.1.3.The third domain: Using technology
5.2.1.4.The fourth domain: Human relations
5.2.1.5.The fifth domain: Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback
5.2.2.The second question
5.3.3.The third question
5.3.3.1.Rationale behind designing the proposed training programme
5.3.3.2.Vision of the proposed training programme
5.3.3.3.Components of the proposed training programme
CHAPTER VI: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS & SUGGESTIONS
6.1.Introduction
6.2.Summary of the Study
6.3.Conclusions
6.4.Limitations of the Study
6.5.Recommendations
6.6.Suggestions
REFERENCES
LIST OF APPENDICIES
І The Final Version of the Questionnaire
ІI List of the Questionnaire’s Referees
ІIІ List of the Proposed Training Programme’s Referees
IV Responses to the Statement of the Questionnaire According to the Variable of Sample Type
V Responses to the Statement of the Questionnaire According to the Variable of Geography
LIST OF TABLES
4.1 The Sample of the Study
4.2 Domains and Numbers of Statements of the First Version of the Study Instrument
4.3 Domains and Statements of the First and the Revised Versions of the Study Instrument with the Modifications of the Referees
4.4 Domains and Numbers of Statements of the Revised Version of the Study Instrument
4.5 Reliability Statistics Using Test-retest Method
4.6 Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficients of the Study Instrument and Its Domains
4.7 Questionnaire Distribution
4.8 Components of the First Version of the Proposed Training Programme
4.9 Modifications Suggested by the Referees of the Proposed Training Programme
4.1 0Components of the Revised Version of the Proposed Training Programme
5.1 The Norm Used to Present and Discuss the Results of the First Question
5.2 Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of the Domain ‘Planning Teaching’ Sorted in Descending Order
5.3 Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of the Sub-domain ‘Physical Classroom Environment’ Sorted in Descending Order
5.4 Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of the Sub-domain ‘Teaching Strategies’ Sorted in Descending Order
5.5 Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of the sub-domain ‘Communication’ Sorted in Descending Order
5.6 Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of the domain ‘Using Technology’ Sorted in Descending Order
5.7 Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of the Domain ‘Human Relations’ Sorted in Descending Order
5.8 Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of the Domain ‘Assessment, Evaluation, and Giving Feedback’ Sorted in Descending Order
5.9 Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Domain of the Study Instrument Sorted in Descending Order
5.10 Results of One-way ANOVA Analysis for the Variable of ‘Sample Type’
5.11 Results of Scheffé test for the Differences in the Averages According to the Variable of ‘Sample Type’
5.12 Results of One-way ANOVA Analysis for the Variable of ‘Geography’
LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Structure of the study
2.1 Domains of the proposed training programme
2.2 The cycle of designing a training programme
4.1 Scatterplot of the first and the second administration of the study instrument
4.2 Stages of constructing and administering the study instrument
5.1 Means of the degree of practice of the five domains of the study instrument
5.2 Means of the degree of practice according to the variable of ‘sample type’
5.3 Diagrammatic representation of the proposed training programme
DECLARATION
I declare that the work entitled “Designing a Proposed Training Programme for Developing Teaching Competencies of Yemeni University English Teachers” submitted by me for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy is the record of work carried out by me under the supervision and direction of Dr. L. V. Padmarani Rao and has not formed the basis for award of any degree, diploma, associateship, fellowship, titles in this or any other university or institution. I further declare that the material obtained from other sources has been duly acknowledged in this work.
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DEDICATION
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Praise and thanks be to Allah for helping me to accomplish this scientific study.
I owe an enormous debt of gratitude to my supervisor Dr. L. V. Padmarani Rao. I cannot express how lucky I was to have worked under her guidance. She was a constant source of information, encouragement, guidance, and kindness at every stage of this work.
My deepest love and gratitude goes to my loving parents, my wife, my brothers, my sisters, my daughters, and my little son for keeping my spirits up whenever I felt discouraged and depressed.
I like to express my deepest sense of love and gratitude to Prof. Sultan Saeed Al-Mekhlafi, Dr. Abdurrahman G. Al-Mekhlafi, Dr. Lotf Al-Qahtani, and Mr. Abdulkareem Al-Duais. They have been a constant source of valuable and insightful comments and suggestions to me.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to Prof. S. Mohanraj, Prof. Jayashree Mohanraj, and all the other referees of the questionnaire and the proposed training programme of this study. They were very cooperative to spend some of their valuable time reviewing, commenting, and making suggestions with a view to making this work better. I found their insightful ideas and suggestions very helpful.
I am thankful for all my friends who supported and helped me whenever I wanted, in particular Mr. Abdo Mohammed Taleb, Mr. Zakariya Al-Dahwa, Ms Sahar Al-Hakimi, Mr. Abdulrahman Al-Imad, and Mr. Osama Ahmed Ali.
My special thanks and gratitude go to all those who helped me to administer the questionnaire of this study, especially Dr. Mohammed Abdu Al-Mekhlafi, Dr. Abdulsalam Al-Mekhlafi, Dr. Ali Al-Nuzaili, Dr. Abdulmalik Mansoor, Mr. Wadea Al-Salihi, Mr. Majeed Nu’man, Mr. Nabil Abdullah, Mr. Khalil Naji, Ms Anwar Arsalan, Mr. Musa Abdullah, Mr. Al-Mu’tasem Abdullah, Mr. Basel Al-Attab, Mr. Labeeb Mahyoub, and all the chairmen of English departments of Sana’a University, Aden University, and Taiz University.
I would also like to express my thanks to all the respondents from Yemeni universities (chairmen, doctors, and students) who devoted some of their valuable time to complete the study questionnaire. I appreciate their help and cooperation. Many thanks go to Dr. Mohammed Taher and Dr. Shawqi Al-Duais for helping me to do the statistical analysis of the study data.
Finally, I would like to offer my thanks to the officials at Ibb University for their support and help, especially Dr. Abdullah Al-Falahi, the Dean of Postgraduate Studies and Scientific Research and Dr. Huda Al-Mansoob, the Dean of the Center of Languages and Translation, for her help, cooperation, and guidance while collecting the data of the study.
Marwan Saeed Saif Moqbel
ABSTRACT
The main objective of this study is to investigate the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers in terms of identifying the degree of practicing these competencies from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students of English departments, and the chairmen of English departments with a view to designing a proposed training programme which aims at developing the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers.
The study primarily adopted the descriptive design and the quantitative approach. The data were collected through a questionnaire which consisted of (73) teaching competencies distributed among five main domains: planning teaching; implementing teaching; using technology; human relations; and assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback. After making sure of its validity and reliability, it was administered to three Yemeni public universities (Sana’a University, Aden University, and Taiz University). The sample consisted of (49) Yemeni university English teachers, (590) students of level four, and (6) chairmen of English departments. The data collected were computed and analysed using the Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows (version 17.0).
The current study is divided into six chapters. Chapter one includes an introduction to the study. It describes the problem of the study, offers its questions and highlights its significance. It also presents the aims and objectives of the study and its scope and delimitations. Moreover, it defines the terms related to the present study and spells out the outlines of the subsequent chapters.
Chapter two provides a theoretical and conceptual background for the current study. It is divided into two parts. The first part deals with teaching and teaching competencies. The second part deals with training and procedures and stages of designing training programmes.
Chapter three sheds light on some previous studies related to the two domains of the study: teaching competencies and constructing or evaluating the effectiveness of teacher training programmes. In each domain, the previous studies are classified into two groups: Arabic studies (studies conducted in the Arab countries) and foreign studies (studies conducted abroad). This chapter also describes the previous studies in terms of their objectives, sample, tools used to collect data, results, and benefits with a view to highlighting the similarities and differences between the previous studies and the current one.
Chapter four describes the approach and the design of the study and its population and sample. It also describes the procedures followed to construct the study instrument and measure its validity and reliability as well as the procedures followed to construct the proposed training programme and measure its validity. In addition, the statistical tools used to answer the questions of the study are presented in this chapter.
In chapter five, the study analyses the data obtained with a view to answering the study questions. It presents and discusses the results of that analysis to come up with facts about the practice of Yemeni university English teachers for the teaching competencies in question. In general, the study revealed that the degree of practicing Yemeni university English teachers for the teaching competencies is low. It also revealed that there are statistically significant differences in the means of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers according to the variable of sample type (university English teachers, students, and chairmen of English departments) at the (0.05) level of significance. These significant differences were found in the means of the target sample responses between teachers and students on the one hand and between students and chairmen on the other hand. However, the study showed that there are no statistically significant differences in the means of the target sample responses between teachers and chairmen. Moreover, the study showed that there are no statistically significant differences in the means of the target sample responses according to the variable of geography (Sana’a, Aden, and Taiz). Based on the results of the study which highlighted the need of Yemeni university English teachers for training in teaching, a training programme was proposed and presented in this chapter.
Chapter six presents a summary of the whole study and its major conclusions. Based on the findings of the study, this chapter suggests some recommendations concerning improving the process of teaching and learning in the English departments of Yemeni universities and conducting the proposed training programme. It also presents some suggestions for further research.
It is hoped that the current study will significantly contribute to developing teaching English and English courses at university level in Yemen. It is for the first time to investigate the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers. This may draw some attention to the importance of training university English teachers in teaching, improving the instructional environment of teaching English at university level, and setting some norms for appointing new university teachers to teach in English departments, including all the competencies required by a university English teacher.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction
Universities are the most important institutions in any society. They are responsible for preparing and qualifying students who will work in the various institutions of society later on. They have to provide students with the necessary skills and knowledge that they may need in their personal and practical life. In other words, during their study at university, students have to be well qualified to be able to reflect what they have learnt in their life.
This requires teachers who are well-qualified, not only academically and scientifically, but also pedagogically and personally. In fact, university teachers need more than maintaining a high level of specific academic discipline knowledge to make good classroom practice (Silva, 2001) as the discipline knowledge is not enough to enable them to make effective teaching which is the most important function of university teachers from the perspective of students (Wardlow & Johnson, 1999). In other words, university teaching requires teachers who maintain a high level of subject matter knowledge and who are able to plan and implement teaching (Al-Ser, 2004), to develop good student-teacher relationships, to transmit knowledge to their students (Silva, 2001), to communicate the objectives of the course to students, to use alternative instructional methods or strategies, to select the effective methods and strategies that meet the needs of students, to create effective learning environments for different types of students, to design instruction that facilitates students learning, to establish good rapport with students, to assess and correct students properly, and to give students the kind of feedback that supports their learning (Murray, Gillese, Lennon, Mercer, & Robinson, 1996).
The changes that have occurred in society have affected the work of teachers to a large extent. Teachers need now to develop themselves professionally, and such development can happen only through a systematic training process (Québec, 2001). In today’s world, training has become very important. According to Murillo (1999), in-service training is the only tool to face the continuous changes in society (as cited in Lera, Cela, & de Andalucía, 2001). It is an effective tool that can be used by any company, institution, or corporation not only to increase productivity, but also to motivate the staff members, to provide them with all the information that they need to perform their jobs (Anonymous, 1998), and to strengthen and enhance their skills continually (Anyamele, 2007, Theoretical framework section, para. 2). Its importance comes out of the fact that no one can achieve any particular aim unless he or she has the abilities and skills and knows how to use them effectively to do so.
Most universities all over the world use such an effective tool to develop and improve the performance of their faculty. For example, in UK, Norway, Sri Lanka, and in many other countries; training of university teachers is now established in every university (Gibbs, 2004). In Australia, training faculty members has been given a lot of concern since a long time. It is believed that training is essential for them. Peter and Lousdale (1975) indicated that the Commission on Advanced Education in Australia produced a report, stating that it is highly desirable that all the faculty members receive training in educational methods, especially the new ones who must undertake a training course in educational methods before commencing teaching. For old faculty members, it stated that they should receive refresher training course in educational methods to keep them up-to-date in modern techniques and approaches of teaching.
Most universities in the world have centres or units responsible for developing their faculty members professionally. Through these centres or units, universities can use training programmes or any other methods of training to train their faculty in the various competencies that they need. For example, Australian universities were among the first universities which established central development units for developing teaching responsibilities of their faculty members (Dearn, Fraser, & Ryan, 2002). Another example is that of Abdul-Aziz King University in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia which established the Centre of University Instruction Development. This center has many functions including curricula and scientific materials preparation, teaching methods, and assessment methods (Al-Thubaiti, 1993). In this way, universities can assure continuous learning and development for their staff, which is central to the quality of education as a whole (Fielden, 1998). In fact, in this changing environment, one of the most important responsibilities of university administration is to develop its staff professionally in order to be able to support students learning and improve their performance (Bank & Mayes, 2001 as cited in Anyamele, 2007). According to Stoll and Fink (1996), teachers who are professionally developed and have the skills and knowledge required by teaching profession are more likely to motivate their students to learn (as cited in Anyamele, 2007).
Yemeni universities should do the same, especially that the criteria of appointing new faculty members to teach in the academic departments focus only on the academic knowledge of teachers, regardless whether they have the ability to teach effectively or not. Yemeni universities should commit themselves to providing opportunities for their faculty members to gain the knowledge and teaching competencies that they need to be able to achieve the targeted objectives of these institutions, which is ultimately the students learning. Through their directorates or centres of professional development, Yemeni universities can use training programmes to train their faculty members in the various competencies that they need. By doing this, they can participate in developing and improving the performance of their staff and, in return, improving and developing the education process as a whole. According to Ho, Watkins, and Kelly (2001), “a development in teaching conceptions can lead to improvements in teaching practices and in student learning, and that this can happen within a short period of time” (p. 165).
Yemeni university English teachers are similar to Yemeni university teachers of other disciplines in terms of the criteria used to appoint new faculty members to teach in English departments. Therefore, they may need to be trained to teach effectively and a training programme that reflects their training needs can be used for such a purpose. It can help them to acquire the teaching competencies required to make effective teaching, such as the competencies of planning teaching, managing classroom, communicating effectively with students, integrating technologies into teaching, building constructive teacher-student and student-student relationships, and assessing students and giving them constructive feedback.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
Universities should select their teachers carefully according to various criteria, taking into account all the necessary competencies that are required for university teachers. In addition to mastery of subject matter, university teachers should have the necessary competencies to communicate information and knowledge to their students effectively because, as a matter of fact, university teachers who do not possess the necessary teaching competencies will not be able to teach effectively even if they are perfect in their disciplines (Afana, 1997). According to Mellish, Brink, and Paton (2001), the success of teaching is affected by the teaching skills and competencies of the teacher (as cited in Rudman, 2007).
This point was highlighted by many previous studies which indicated how university teaching was perceived by students and the faculty members themselves to be weak due to the lack of the faculty members for teaching competencies and skills. Here, the researcher reports on some of these studies:
- The study of Silva (2001), which investigated the difficulties that professors at the Federal University in Brazil face in their teaching, showed, based on the responses of professors, that their pedagogical competence was not enough. For example, the professors cited difficulties in using different teaching methods, stimulating students to participate in classes, and in assessing students. They recognized that such difficulties indicated the need for pedagogical training. The researcher explained this case, stating that the professors did not have pedagogical disciplines during their study, their position is more concerned with research than teaching, and the criteria of employment give more importance to academic discipline knowledge than pedagogical competence.
- The study of Al-Gifri (2002), which investigated the teaching performance of the faculty members of Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah, revealed that the teaching performance of the faculty members was not at the required level from the perspective of female postgraduate students.
- The study of Al-Shuail and Khatabiya (2002), which investigated the practice of the faculty members of the Faculty of Education at Sultan Qaboos University for the basic teaching skills and their needs to improve their performance, revealed that the practice of the faculty members for teaching skills was low from the perspective of postgraduate students.
- The study of Malik, Hassan, and Sultan (2003), which investigated the extent to which the faculty members of University of Agriculture, Faisalabad–38040, Pakistan were competent in the performance of their duties as teachers; revealed that the students were not satisfied with their university teachers regarding their competencies in subject matter, teaching techniques, understanding of human psychology, and impartiality.
- The study of Jan (2010), which investigated the teaching competencies of female faculty members in educational departments of Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah, revealed that female postgraduate students were not satisfied with the use of the faculty members for traditional methods of teaching and evaluation and inhumane treatment of students as well.
- The study of Al-Subaiei (2010) indicated that the practice of the faculty members of Sciences Departments for sciences teaching skills, in the light of the total quality standards, was weak from the perspective of the students in the Faculty of Applied Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah.
- The study of Al-Kubaisi (2011), which investigated the reality of university teaching quality from the perspective of the faculty members of Al-Anbar University, indicated that there was a decline in the quality level of university teaching which might be attributed to the fact that some of the faculty members of scientific branches did not receive enough educational preparation.
All the researchers of these studies recommended carrying out training courses and workshops for university teachers in order to develop their teaching performance.
In Yemen, the increase of university education and the number of students who join universities have played a negative role in accepting most Ph. D. holders as university teachers regardless whether they have the abilities to teach or not (M. S. Al-Mekhlafi, 2002). In other words, Yemeni universities pay attention only to the academic knowledge of teachers when appointing new teachers to teach in the academic departments including English department, regardless whether these teachers have the necessary teaching competencies to create appropriate instructional environments for their students or not. What makes this worse is the absence of a system for evaluating, improving, and developing the teaching competence of the faculty members (M. S. Al-Mekhlafi, 2002). This means that Yemeni university teachers may not have the necessary teaching competencies required to make effective teaching and may teach in a traditional way. As a matter of fact, university teachers who do not possess the necessary teaching competencies will not be able to teach effectively even if they are perfect in their disciplines. In the researcher’s opinion, this may negatively affect the educational process and the level of graduates of Yemeni universities.
Another factor that makes training university teachers necessary is the continuous changes and developments of this age. These changes require university teachers to be excellent teachers. University teachers are required now to be able to design courses and use various teaching methods to suit the different groups of students, to integrate technology into their teaching (Ramsden, 2004), to facilitate learning, to assess students authentically, to advise students, and to manage courses (Chan, 1996). Such new competencies for university teachers make training all the more important for them to enable them to reflect these competencies in their teaching because being unable to do that will affect their teaching negatively which will, in turn, affect the learning level of students. The result then is graduates who cannot work in an environment characterized by globalization.
This made the researcher think of how Yemeni universities can participate in improving and developing the teaching performance of their faculty members of English departments, especially that setting them to teach without having the necessary teaching competencies can affect the education process and, in turn, the educational outcomes negatively. This does not match with the desire of Yemeni universities to improve their outcomes in response to the demands of globalization. Therefore, there have to be training programmes that aim either at improving the competencies which teachers have or at providing them with new ones in the light of developments in the field of education.
In the light of this, the researcher can state the problem of the current study in the following questions:
Main Question:
What is the proposed training programme that can help Yemeni university English teachers to acquire the teaching competencies which they need in the light of this age characteristics?
Sub-questions:
1. What is the mean score of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students, and the chairmen of English departments?
2. Are there any statistically significant differences in the degree of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers according to the variables of the sample type (university English teachers, their students, and the chairmen of English departments) and geography (Sana’a, Aden, and Taiz)?
3. What are the components of the proposed training programme that can help Yemeni university English teachers to acquire the teaching competencies which they need in the light of this age characteristics?
In other words, the problem of the current study is limited to investigating the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers; identifying the mean score of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students, and the chairmen of English departments; identifying if there are any statistically significant differences in the mean scores of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers according to the variables of the sample type (university English teachers, their students, and the chairmen of English departments) and geography (Sana’a, Aden, and Taiz); and determining and setting the components of the proposed training programme that can be used to help Yemeni university English teachers to acquire the teaching competencies which they need in the light of this age characteristics.
1.3. Objectives of the Study
This study aims at investigating the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers to identify the degree of their practice for these competencies. The researcher will design a proposed training programme based on the training needs of Yemeni university English teachers. This programme can be used to make the desirable changes in the behaviours of Yemeni university English teachers by training them in the various teaching competencies that they need in their teaching in the light of this age characteristics.
It also aims at achieving the following objectives:
- Identifying the mean score of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students, and the chairmen of English departments.
- Identifying if there are any statistically significant differences in the mean scores of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers according to the variables of the sample type (university English teachers, their students, and the chairmen of English departments) and geography (Sana’a, Aden, and Taiz).
- Determining and setting the components of the proposed training programme that can be used to help Yemeni university English teachers to acquire the teaching competencies which they need in the light of this age characteristics.
1.4. Significance of the Study
The significance of this study emerges from the importance of teaching competencies for faculty members of universities. Universities are the basis of development and education in any society. Their faculty members and their development are central to the quality of education that they present. In addition to mastery of the subject matter, the faculty members of universities have to possess some instructional competencies in order to be able to perform their functions as teachers and play an active role in achieving the goals and objectives of universities. programmes and in students learning.
What is specific about the current study is that – to the best of the researcher’s knowledge – it is the first study of its kind on the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers. No one has covered this area before although it is very crucial for developing English teaching at Yemeni universities. This indicates the lack of awareness of the importance of English teaching competencies in making teaching English more effective at Yemeni universities.
The current study sheds light on the teaching competencies that Yemeni university English teachers display or lack in their teaching. It presents a clear picture of the level of their teaching performance from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students, and chairmen of English departments. It also proposes a training programme based on the teaching competencies that a Yemeni university English teacher may need. This proposed training programme can be used by Yemeni universities to improve and develop the teaching competencies of the faculty members of English departments in various domains: planning teaching; implementing teaching; integrating technologies into teaching; human relations; and assessmen, evaluation, and giving feedback. In other words, Yemeni universities, through their directorates or centres in charge of professional development, can use the proposed training programme to develop an important aspect of their English faculty members: the pedagogical aspect.
What gives this study more importance is the fact that Yemeni universities do not pay attention to teaching competence when they appoint new English teachers to teach in English departments. This means that Yemeni university English teachers may not possess the necessary teaching competencies and teach in a traditional way. Therefore, Yemeni universities need now to think seriously about how to solve this problem which can affect students learning negatively. The proposed training programme is expected to help in this regard.
In other words, the training programme proposed by the researcher can be used as a starting point for in-service training of Yemeni university English teachers and the results of this study may be a starting point for improving English teaching at Yemeni universities and changing the traditional methods and techniques used for teaching English courses at Yemeni universities.
In addition, based on reviewing the related literature and considering the opinions of some experts, the current study presents a list of the teaching competencies required by a university English teacher to teach effectively. This list can be used as a checklist for evaluating the teaching performance of Yemeni university English teachers and then suggesting the appropriate remedies for them. Moreover, the study, based on reviewing the related literature in the field of designing training programmes, presents a systematic model for constructing training programmes for professional development in higher education which can be utilized by professionals while designing training programmes.
Finally, the results of this study may motivate those who are in charge of appointing teachers to teach in Yemeni universities to rethink about the rules and regulations in this regard and focus not only on the level of subject matter knowledge of these teachers but also on some other competencies required by such a job, especially teaching competencies.
1.5. Scope and Delimitations
This study is confined to the following:
- Investigating the teaching competencies of university English teachers and designing a proposed training programme that can be used to help Yemeni university English teachers to acquire the teaching competencies that they need in the light of this age characteristics.
- Yemeni university English teachers, English students of level four, and chairmen of English departments at three Yemeni public universities: Sana’a University, Aden University, and Taiz University.
- The study instrument was administered to the target sample during the academic year 2012-2013.
1.6. Definition of Terms
1.6.1. University teacher
- M. S. Al-Mekhlafi (2002) defined a faculty member as any Ph. D. holder who practices the teaching profession at university whether he/she is an assistant professor, an associate professor, or a professor (p. 122).
- Procedurally, the researcher defines a university English teacher as any Yemeni university English teacher who teaches English courses in the English departments of Yemeni public universities whether he/she is an assistant professor, an associate professor, or a professor.
1.6.2. Teaching competencies
- Hirst and Bailey (1983) defined teaching competencies as “those effective teaching behaviours instructors exhibit in classroom teaching” (p. 3).
- In Tigelaar, Dolmans, Wolfhagen, and van der Vleuten (2004), teaching competencies are defined as “an integrated set of personal characteristics, knowledge, skills and attitudes that are needed for effective performance in various teaching contexts” (p. 255).
- Khawagah and Al-Sayeh (2008) defined teaching competencies as a set of knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes which direct the teaching behaviour of a teacher and help him to capably perform his work inside and outside the classroom at a certain level. They can be measured by special standards which are agreed on (as cited in Al-Rubaiei, Mahmood, & Ali, 2010, p. 47).
1.6.3. Training
- According to McClelland (2002), training, simply “is an activity that changes people’s behaviour” (p. 7).
- Silberman and Auerbach (2006) defined training as “a method of enhancing human performance. Whenever a person’s ability to perform a job is limited by a lack of knowledge or skill, it makes sense to bridge that gap by providing the required instruction” (p. 1).
- Bray (2009) defined training as “a process designed to facilitate learning in the target audience” (p. 35).
1.6.4. Training programme
- Aqeeli (1996) defined training programme as a planned process which uses methods and tools with a view to creating, improving, refining the skills and capacities of individuals, and broadening the extent of their knowledge for the effective performance through learning in order to raise their efficiency and thus the efficiency of the institution (as cited in Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008, p. 9).
- For Idrees (2001), the training programme is those practical and theoretical instructional experiences organized and supported by activities, methods, and techniques for the training subject presented by training experts (p. 12).
- Procedurally, the researcher defines the training programme as an organized and comprehensive plan developed with a view to developing the teaching competencies that Yemeni university English teachers need in the light of the current age characteristics, containing the training goals and objectives, the training topics, the schedule, the methods and aids of training, the tools required for evaluation, and the procedures required for implementation.
1.6.5. The degree of practice
Procedurally, the degree of practice means the degree that Yemeni university English teachers obtain through the responses of the study sample to the statements of the study instrument on a five-point scale (always, often, sometimes, rarely, and never) given the numbers 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively. The acceptable degree of practice is specified by getting (3) or more degrees out of (5) with a corresponding percentage of (60 %) or more out of the whole (100 %) at the level of each statement, each domain, and the whole instrument.
1.7. Organization of the Study
The current study is divided into six chapters. Chapter one includes an introduction to the study, its problem and questions, aims and objectives, significance, scope and delimitations, and definition of the related terms. It also spells out the outlines of the subsequent chapters. Chapter two provides a theoretical background for the study which is divided into two parts. The first part deals with teaching and teaching competencies. The second part deals with training and the procedures and stages of designing training programmes.
Chapter three sheds light on some previous studies related to the two fields of the current study: teaching competencies and constructing training programmes. In each field, the previous studies are classified into two groups: Arabic studies (studies conducted in the Arab countries) and foreign studies (studies conducted abroad).
In chapter four, the study deals with the methodology used and the procedures followed to conduct the study. It describes the population and sample of the study, the instrument used to collect data and the ways of measuring its validity and reliability, the procedures followed to construct the proposed training programme and measure its validity, and the statistical tools used to analyse data and to answer the questions of the study.
Chapter five, using the study questions as a framework, analyses the data obtained and presents and discusses the findings of the study to come up with facts about the practice of Yemeni university English teachers for the teaching competencies.
Chapter six presents a brief summary of the study, including some conclusions. It also states some recommendations concerning improving the teaching performance and competencies of Yemeni university English teachers and implementing the proposed training programme and some suggestions for further research.
In brief, the study consists of six chapters as portrayed in Figure (1.1).
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure 1.1: Structure of the study.
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1. Introduction
This chapter deals with the theoretical concepts related to the study. It tries to provide a theoretical background for
- teaching and teaching competencies and
- training and designing training programme.
2.2. University Functions
Universities are considered to be the most important institutions in society. They have three major functions: teaching, scientific research, and community service. These three functions represent the three major concerns of faculty members (Centra, 1977) and should be given as much attention as possible by universities and their faculty members to ensure the mission of establishing universities in societies. Therefore, evaluating a university or an individual faculty member should be seen in the light of these three major functions as the primary reason for establishing universities and appointing faculty members to work at them is found in the three functions.
Teaching is the most common function associated with universities. It is what almost every faculty member does and be engaged in most of his time (Seldin, 1995). The importance of this function emerges from its being connected with preparing students to work effectively and responsibly within society. It is for this reason that teaching in higher education should not be considered as a process of transferring information and knowledge to students and that the faculty members need not be competent in teaching. It is true that this function was not given enough concern. However, there is a growing emphasis on teaching as an important function of academic staff (Fielden, 1998).
Scientific research is considered a fundamental function of universities and is given more concern by their faculty. Universities are required to conduct researches, aiming at playing an effective role in developing countries. This requires faculty members who are able to conduct good quality researches; especially that funding becomes more competitive than before. According to Fielden (1998), among the skills that faculty members need now are writing researches, raising funding for projects, guiding PhD students and researchers, and managing projects. The reason of giving research more concern by faculty members is associated with their role as T. Moore and Ward (2010) stated. T. Moore and Ward indicated that faculty members view their work in the light of institutional expectations for them to be mainly engaged in research and that university culture directs them to focus on research. However, faculty members can be highly productive scholars when involved in the community through the three functions: teaching, research, and community service as T. Moore and Ward argued.
Community service is also an essential function of universities. This function involves cooperation and partnership between universities and community with a view to developing it at all levels (Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008). Universities and their faculty members have to use their expertise to address the issues of community (T. Moore & Ward, 2010). This requires faculty members to be aware of what is happening in society and what problems are there in it to be able to play an effective role in giving solutions for its problems and meeting its needs (Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008). This engagement in the community has not to be limited to business and economic aspects, but it has also to extend to reach social, environmental, cultural, political, and religious dimensions of community, covering all sectors of society (Business/Higher Education Round Table [BHERT], 2006). To achieve this level of university and faculty engagement in the community, a deeper understanding of how to integrate the three functions in community contexts is required (T. Moore & Ward, 2010).
In Yemeni universities, the faculty members’ function of research is given more concern than the function of teaching or the function of community service. This is clear from the procedures followed in promoting them which give more concern to the number of published researches, regardless of their teaching competence (M. S. Al- Mekhlafi, 2002) or their role in community service. However, if this policy continues, then faculty members will keep on thinking that only conducting researches is important (Seldin, 1995).
In short, the interaction of faculty with communities is expressed through teaching, research, and community service (T. Moore & Ward, 2010). Therefore, there should be a balance in the concern given to the three functions, seeing them as complementary functions. It is only through this integration and engagement of universities and their faculty members in community can be achieved. In the researcher’s opinion, universities can make such balance and complementation among the three functions through establishing some policies and practices and providing opportunities in this regard.
2.3. The Concept of Teaching
Teaching is “an interactive process as well as an intentional activity” that can provide learning opportunities for students (Brown & Atkins, 2002, p. 2) and make their learning possible (Ramsden, 2004). It is “the intentional passing on of information from one who knows more to one who knows less, i.e., at the base of teaching is a knowledge gap” (Strauss, 2005, p. 371). According to Billings and Halstead (2005), it is a complex set of actions that aims at ensuring learning (as cited in Rudman, 2007). It is “an art and not a science” and as every artist, teacher needs to have basic skills before setting to work (Seldin, 1995, p. 9). Moreover, it is “an intellectual and a social activity” (Svinicki & Mckeachie, 2011, p. 333).
This complex process requires having many cognitive prerequisites. Strauss (2005) referred to some of these cognitive prerequisites:
- the ability to monitor the other’s mind (the ability to know knowledge, emotions, etc. the other has),
- having representations of the knowledge that is to be correct and that of the learner’s possible incorrect knowledge and the ability to know the gap between the two knowledge representations,
- the ability to communicate knowledge to students, and
- the ability to provide feedback to students.
This complexity of teaching also involves several aspects. It is a process which is physically, emotionally, and cognitively demanding. Teachers need to be active in the class which demands physical efforts during classes. They also need to care about their students and feel empathetic with them which can make teachers emotionally exhausted. Moreover, they need to make a lot of decisions regarding designing lessons, meeting students, responding to their questions, etc. (Danielson, 2007).
Like any other profession, teaching is not an end in itself. It has some functions. These functions, according to Squires (2004), can be classified into three groups: cognitive functions, affective functions, and executive functions. The first group is related to the learning process, the second to the learning preferences, and the third to the general concepts and approaches to learning strategies. Squires (2004) made a list of these three groups of teaching functions which are reflected in the roles and functions of teaching:
- The cognitive functions included
- collecting the recourses of learning and presenting them in a form of course,
- auditing students’ previous learning and building on it,
- orienting students to new learning,
- providing inputs to learning, directly and indirectly,
- explaining and checking understanding,
- giving tasks and providing feedback for students, and
- facilitating interaction in the class.
- The affective functions included
- motivating students,
- making learning rewarding, and
- supporting students.
- The executive functions included
- helping students to explore the world through enquiry and
- encouraging students to reflect on their learning.
In brief, teaching is a complex intentional process that involves some aspects and has several functions and aims, in its final end, at providing learning opportunities for students. Therefore, it cannot be left to chance. It should involve “developing, practicing, and evaluating pedagogical skills in an environment both supportive and facilitative” (Kovac, 1976, p. 64) especially that it is “a learned profession” (Shulman, 1987).
2.3.1. The nature of university teaching
University teaching is a complex and multidimensional process in nature. It involves “a wide variety of practices and methods” (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2005, p. 148). It is a professional activity that requires both skills and knowledge which can be learnt and developed through professional development (Dearn et al., 2002). There are many factors that can affect this process positively or negatively: some of these factors are related to the scientific and pedagogical preparation of university teachers and whether they have the necessary competencies to teach effectively; some are related to the characteristics of the current age which is characterized by continuous changes; and some are related to the curriculum, teaching plans and programmes.
This process requires university teachers to know the subject being taught. It also requires them to be able to analyse the topics being taught; to select appropriate teaching strategies and materials; and to organize the materials, information, and activities for students (Brown & Atkins, 2002). In addition, it requires them to be able to plan and implement teaching, to evaluate and assess students and give them appropriate feedback, to stimulate students to learn, and to communicate with them effectively (Al-Ser, 2004).
According to Maslowski (1976), effective university teaching cannot be achieved through “magical formula.” It requires the availability and the combination of some elements, such as knowledge of subject matter, teaching skills, and enthusiasm (p. 125). These teaching skills “can be acquired, improved, and extended” (Brown & Atkins, 2002, p. 1).
Allan, Clarke, and Jopling (2009), reporting on a case study, indicated that in higher education teaching, students are concerned with the learning environment in which teachers support their learning rather than with the academic level of their teachers. According to the case study reported, students favour teaching that enhances their learning and personal attributes of their teachers that improve the interaction between them and their teachers. They also prefer that kind of teaching in which they are more active rather than just recipients of knowledge.
Teaching in higher education should be seen as a process of cooperation between teachers and students. Teachers should work cooperatively with students to help them change their understanding and to make their learning possible (Ramsden, 2004). According to Eble (1971), the act of college teaching “must move toward openness, [and] toward a willingness of faculty and students to enter an experience of mutual and shared learning” (p. 285).
According to Berendt (1994), good university teaching
- aims at achieving the students’ autonomy;
- discourages product-oriented learning but promotes process-oriented learning;
- requires learners to be active;
- uses a variety of teaching methods to meet the different types of learning styles of students;
- uses technology in order to facilitate learning;
- deals with students as partners in the pedagogical process; and
- tries to prepare students for their future professional fields of work.
To sum up, to teach effectively in higher education, teachers should know their subject matter, should be able to select appropriate course content in accordance with their students’ needs and level, should know how their students learn and how to teach them, should know how to communicate and interact with their students effectively, and should be able to evaluate and assess their students and give them appropriate feedback.
2.3.2. The changing perspectives towards university teaching
University teaching was seen as a process of transmitting information from teachers to students, i.e., it was one-way delivery. It was believed that learning (the student’s job) is something separate from teaching (the teacher’s job) which is entirely wrong (Ramsden, 2004, p. 86). It was even believed that if university students could not learn, it was because of them (they have a learning difficulty), not because of the teaching. Such belief is absolutely wrong as Ramsden (2004) stated. Ramsden asserted that university teachers do not understand anything about teaching if they cannot help their students to enjoy learning.
Most teaching styles in higher education were teacher-centred. According to this approach, teachers determine the content and present it to students who have to be able to download it. Teachers who believe in this traditional method think that only good learners can learn (Alters & Nelson, 2002). In contrast, student-centred teaching is another approach to university teaching. This approach is being given a lot of concern now. According to this approach, students are the centre of the learning process and instruction should be planned in response to their diversity and interests (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2007).
In fact, the perspectives towards university teaching have changed a lot. University teaching is not neglected as it was. Nowadays, it is being given higher priority in most universities of the world (Biggs & Tang, 2007) and the concern of the kind of teaching that universities should offer is increasing. Moreover, there is a growing trend towards assessing teachers teaching in higher education (J. Jones, 1994; Kearney, 1994) by students, colleagues, and peers (El Hares, 1994) and towards improving the effectiveness of university teaching (Csirik, 1994). This is may be due to the changing context of higher education worldwide and the need to “provide quality assurance in an increasingly competitive and international environment” which requires addressing “the issue of the professionalization of university teaching” (Dearn et al., 2002).
An important factor in changing the context of university teaching is the appearance of technologies and their integration into teaching and learning. Such tools can make teaching in higher education more effective and interesting (El Hares, 1994). This demands university teachers to be skilled not only in their disciplines, but also in management and technology (Silvio, 1994). They should be able not only to use technologies, but also to know their pedagogical implications. According to Dearn et al. (2002), this may lead to the disappearance of the “lone teacher approach” to teaching and the appearance of “collaborative team work” in teaching (p. 6).
Another factor in changing the perspectives towards university teaching is the diversity of students. Classrooms are now full of a diverse range of students. These students demand the quality of teaching that enables them to be qualified well with the skills and knowledge required by the current age. Therefore, universities should respond to such a demand through good teaching (Biggs & Tang, 2007) which usually results in high-quality student learning (Ramsden, 2004).
In short, students, nowadays, need to be prepared for a world characterized by globalization. They need not only to learn content, but also to put their learning into practice in their real life contexts through demonstrating skills and abilities (Pickford & Brown, 2006). This requires teaching of high quality, especially that good teaching is directly linked to student learning and development (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2005) and the low quality of teaching is one of the main causes of the low standard of education (Ghori, Saeed, & Mubeen, 2011).
2.3.3. University teachers of 21st century
Although teaching is the most visible role and the primary professional function of university teachers (Seldin, 1995), it was given very little concern. It is only in recent years that some concern has been given to think of university teachers as teachers who should have knowledge of a particular discipline and pedagogical knowledge to convey that discipline (Dearn et al., 2002). Many recent studies insisted on the importance of pedagogical competence for higher education teachers to teach effectively. Therefore, it becomes necessary even to oblige faculty members to training in this area and consider it as an important aspect of their career path (Kearney, 1994). Responding to this, most universities all over the world have started to give more concern to teaching competencies of their faculty members. For example, in Britain and Australia, new faculty members are required to participate in professional training programmes. They are encouraged to participate in training through awards ranging from certificates to degree levels (Chan, 1996).
To be effective university teachers in the 21st century, university teachers require various skills and abilities to teach effectively and to ensure positive learning outcomes. According to Algonquin College (2004), they should be able to
- understand how students learn and apply this knowledge in their teaching,
- create an effective learning environment,
- use a variety of teaching and learning strategies,
- evaluate students with various tools and techniques,
- work independently and with others to develop and/or adapt learning materials to achieve learning goals,
- use technology effectively in teaching, and
- design and develop curricula.
The most important requirement for university teachers in this age is the technological pedagogical content knowledge. Such knowledge can enable them to integrate technology into teaching and to use technologies to meet the learning needs of students (American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education [AACTE], 2010).
2.3.4. Teaching English in English departments of Yemeni universities
English is taught as a foreign language in Yemen. Its importance as an international language and as the main language of science and technology has made it get a lot of concern in terms of being required for getting jobs. This fact stands behind the desire of many Yemeni students to learn English and to join the Bachelor Programmes in it. This is clear from the number of students in English departments, compared with the number of students in other departments.
Responding to this, Yemeni universities open English departments mainly in two colleges: college of education and college of arts. These departments attract a lot of students who wish to get a Bachelor degree in English. In both colleges, the entire Bachelor programme is spread over four years of two semesters each. Each semester has an average of 12-15 credits (college of education) or 15-18 credits (college of arts) for courses in English. The aim of teaching English in these departments is to produce graduates specialized in English language. Therefore, the English courses taught in these departments are not limited to courses in English language skills (listening, reading, speaking, and writing) or to courses in English language systems (grammar and phonology). In fact, they cover a wide range of English aspects including both academic content and skills courses of English language. In other words, by talking about teaching English in English departments of Yemeni universities, it is meant teaching courses that lead to developing students English language proficiency as well as courses that lead to having knowledge about English language and its linguistics and literature. In the case of English departments in the colleges of education, in addition to these two types of courses, there are also courses that aim at improving students professional competence.
Therefore, Yemeni university English teachers require not only teaching competencies to teach English language skills but also teaching competencies to teach the linguistics and literature of English. They need to know the various types of methods and strategies of teaching content and skills courses of English language.
2.3.5. Teaching competencies
A competency is “the ability to perform tasks and duties to the standard expected in employment” (Charles Darwin University, 2006). According to the International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction (IBSTPI), a competency involves “an accumulation of knowledge, skills and attitudes” that one needs to perform his job effectively. It can be measured against some standards that are accepted for a particular profession. It can also be developed and improved through training (Richey, Fields, & Foxon, 2001).
Katane et al. (2006) defined competencies as a “set of knowledge, skills, and experience necessary for future, which manifests in activities” (as cited in A. S. Lawrence & Veena, 2012, p. 34). Similarly, Williams (2003) stated that competencies are composed of skills, knowledge, and attitudes. These components form the competence that an individual needs to do his job well.
In the teaching context, competencies are skills, information, behaviours, and characteristics that help teachers perform their job as teachers (Jan, 2010). According to Maguire and Dillon (2007), teaching competencies are related to knowledge of the subject matter, planning, teaching and classroom management, monitoring, assessment and some other professional requirements. They are “integrated and should be viewed as a whole repertoire a teacher has at his or her disposal … [and] in the light of the various contexts in which teaching takes place” (Tigelaar et al., 2004, p. 255), and “reflective of instructional delivery modes and environments” (Na, 2006, p. 105).
According to Shulman (1987), to be able to make effective teaching, a teacher should possess a set of competencies in the following types of knowledge:
- Content knowledge: Understanding the subject matter to be taught.
- General pedagogical knowledge: This includes the principles and strategies for classroom management and organization.
- Curriculum knowledge: Understanding the teaching materials.
- Pedagogical content knowledge: Possessing the ability to convey specific content through effective methods of teaching that enhance students learning and achievement.
- Knowledge of learners and their characteristics.
- Knowledge of educational contexts.
- Knowledge of educational ends, purposes, and values and their philosophical and historical grounds.
Shulman stated that the pedagogical content knowledge is the most important as it “identifies the distinctive bodies of knowledge for teaching” (p. 8).
2.3.6. The nature of teaching competencies
Teaching competencies are not stable. They are “dynamic in nature” and depend on the relevant social context (Spector & de la Teja, 2001). They change according to the context as Na (2006) stated, “When teaching context is changing, teaching competencies must be viewed in the light of the various contexts in which teaching takes place” (p. 1). They are also affected by any change in the nature of the environment, i.e. any “change in the nature of the environment calls for new competencies” (Guasch, Alvarez, & Espasa, 2009, p. 2). Moreover, they may vary according to the instructional delivery mode as Williams (2003) stated. For example, integrating technology into the teaching learning process will require teachers to possess the teaching competencies that enable them to use technologies.
As a result of the changing world, teachers will find it necessary to acquire more teaching competencies that are suitable for the instructional environment in addition to the traditional teaching competencies (Na, 2006). For instance, Na (2006) highlighted the importance of online teaching competencies for teachers of higher education in 2015. Therefore, new frameworks for teaching competencies should be developed from time to time and the tool of training should be used to provide teachers with whatever new competencies they need in their work. Similarly, Selvi (2010) stated that the competencies of teachers should be subjected to research continuously. They should be reviewed and redefined continuously according to the changes and international developments. In other words, teachers need to acquire new competencies from time to time in order to be able to cope up with changes. They should keep themselves up to date with the developments in the field of teaching. They should also keep on improving and evaluating their teaching skills and competencies according to the changing needs of the learners (Richards & Farrell, 2005).
In summary, teaching competencies are changeable. This requires developing new frameworks for teaching competencies from time to time and training teachers in whatever teaching competencies they need in the light of the changing pedagogical strategies and the emerging technologies or any other changes.
2.3.7. The importance of possessing teaching competencies
The faculty members are the vital and valued tools for achieving the goal and objectives of universities (Anyamele, 2007). Therefore, they should have all the necessary competencies and skills required by their profession as university teachers. It is true that they should maintain a high level of subject matter knowledge, but this is not enough to make good classroom practice (Silva, 2001). They need also to possess the teaching competencies required by their profession as university teachers.
Many previous studies highlighted the importance of teaching competencies for teachers to be able to achieve their roles as teachers. For instance, Silva (2001) stated that university teachers should have teaching competencies and skills to make effective teaching in terms of developing good relationships with students, transmitting knowledge, stimulating students creativity, etc. Similarly, Al-Ghazyuwat (2005) stated that due to the importance of the role played by a university faculty member in the educational process and in order to be able to perform his function effectively, he should have a set of teaching competencies. According to Jumani (2007), to make an effective teaching in the classroom, teachers need to possess teaching competencies and skills.
In brief, to make effective teaching, it is very important for teachers to have the necessary teaching competencies. The importance of such competencies emerges from the fact that the success of teaching is affected by the teaching competencies of teachers (Rudman, 2007) and from the fact that students outcomes are linked with teachers performance in the classroom (AACTE, 2010).
2.4. Teaching Competencies Domains of the Proposed Training Programme
Reviewing at the previous literature related to teaching competencies, the researcher came to know that there was a diversity regarding the set of competencies that teachers should have and the priority given to each competency. The researcher also found that there were some differences in determining the domains of teaching competencies. This might be due to the focus of the previous studies and the context in which they investigated teaching competencies or due to the different perspectives from which they investigated teaching competencies.
Based on the review of the previous literature, reading some related books and articles, and considering the characteristics of the current age and the teaching competencies that the professors of the 21st century should have, the researcher proposes five main domains for the teaching competencies that the proposed training programme aims at improving for Yemeni university English teachers: planning teaching; implementing teaching; using technology; human relations; and assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback as shown in Figure (2.1).
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure 2.1: Domains of the proposed training programme.
2.4.1. Planning teaching
Teaching is a purposeful process which requires planning to meet its purposes. This process can be at the level of the curriculum, at the level of a particular class, or at the level of a particular day. Teachers must determine the purposes of teaching according to what the students should learn as a result of teaching (Danielson, 2007). In other words, when planning teaching, teachers should pay more attention to what they want their students to learn, rather than to what they want to teach.
Planning teaching and learning is a very important process. It is an essential facet of the role of faculty members, which has an important impact on students learning (Stefani, 2008). It is the first step for making effective teaching. It is only through good planning that teachers can set the scene for good teaching which leads to learning. It is also teachers who know how to plan their teaching know what they want their students to achieve and learn. In contrast, poor planning for teaching cannot lead to that as Skowron (2001) stated (as cited in Danielson, 2007). According to Woodward (2001), it is only through planning that teachers can ensure good lectures and good courses .
When planning teaching, teachers should consider some points. They should take into their consideration the students, the content and materials, the activities, and any other factors that may make teaching more effective and help students to learn easily. An important point that is worth mentioning here is that before planning for teaching courses, teachers need to know their students as planning teaching without having an idea about the level and skills of students is useless. If a teacher is not sure of the level of his students, he can assess them through the use of some techniques used for this purpose, such as pre-tests, discussion questions, and questionnaires (Tileston, 2004).
To plan courses and instruction, Wiggins and McTighe (2005) suggested a three-step process which is called the backward design for planning instruction. First, teachers need to ask what they want their students to know or to do as a result of learning. Second, they must examine that their students are learning. Third, they must identify which instructional practices assure them that their students learn and can use what they have learnt.
The learning outcomes approach is another new approach that can be used for developing curricula and courses in higher education. According to this approach, teachers have to develop curricula and courses according to the intended learning outcomes. These outcomes represent a wide range of attributes and abilities that teachers expect their students to have (Stefani, 2008).
Al-Ser (2004) pointed out six sub-domains for planning teaching in the context of higher education:
a. Planning goals and objectives
b. Planning the topics of the course (content)
c. Planning teaching strategies, methods, and activities.
d. Planning assessment methods
e. Planning the course outline
f. Planning a lecture
a. Planning goals and objectives: The instructional goals are general statements of what the learners will learn due to the teacher’s instruction. These instructional goals are expressed in terms of objectives which indicate what the learners will be able to perform at the end of the instruction. While stating the objectives, teachers should take into their consideration their students’ needs and characteristics (Dick & Reiser, 1989). The objectives must be more specific and expressed in concrete statements of what students are expected to learn (Ramsden, 2004). They must also be realistic in terms of the time available for the subject, the abilities of the students, the available facilities, and the number of students in the class (Al-Ser, 2004). In brief, learning goals and objectives state what students will learn over the course of a lesson, a unit, or a semester (Marzano & Brown, 2009).
b. Planning the topics of the course (content): University teachers should be able to select appropriate content for the courses that they teach. Even when the course content is already fixed, teachers still have to be able to reflect on the content in terms of its structure. In selecting content for courses, teachers should take into consideration the goals and the objectives of the course and the needs and the level of the students. A mistake that must be avoided by university teachers regarding selecting course content is including a lot of content that cannot be covered within the time allotted. Teachers should remember while selecting course content that the more a course is saturated with details, the less time remains for the essential activities (Ramsden, 2004). In other words, “teachers should avoid content overload; [as] too much material will encourage a surface approach” to teaching (Fry, Ketteridge, & Marchall, 2008).
c. Planning teaching strategies, methods, and activities: Teaching strategies are approaches and methods that are used to facilitate and enhance the teaching learning process (Mellish et al., 2001 as cited in Rudman, 2007). The question that teachers must ask themselves here is how to arrange and present teaching and learning in a way that provides more opportunities for their students to learn. They should select appropriate teaching approaches, methods, and techniques which match the learning objectives that they want their students to achieve (Baillie, 2004). The process of selection should be based on the effectiveness of approaches, methods, and techniques in encouraging “high quality learning outcomes” (Ramsden, 2004). They should also plan to use various methods of teaching to meet the needs of students’ different styles of learning. In this step, teachers have to make a list of the instructional activities that they will use in their instruction to achieve the objectives. They should also determine the type of the instructional activities and the media used for presenting the activities (Dick & Reiser, 1989).
d. Planning assessment methods: Teachers should plan how their students will be assessed, i.e., what are the methods and techniques that will be used to assess their students learning. For example, whether they will use formative or summative assessment and what forms of formative or summative assessment they will use. They must also give students a clear idea about how they will be assessed. An important point that teachers must pay attention to while planning for assessment is that assessment methods should be matched against teaching (Wilson & Scalise, 2006) and against the objectives of the course (Baillie, 2004; Murray et al., 1996) in order to measure the level of students learning and know whether the objectives are achieved or not.
e. Planning the course outline: After planning the first four sub-domains mentioned above, a university teacher has to prepare an organized, gradual, and flexible outline for the course. This outline must include a description of the course, goals and objectives, topics, assessment methods, facilities and learning aids required for carrying out the course, taking into account the time available for carrying out the course (Al-Ser, 2004).
f. Planning a lecture: Teachers at universities need also to plan their lectures. In panning lectures, Exley and Dennick (2005) referred to four issues that must be taken into consideration while planning for a lecture:
- The content: The teacher must prepare in advance the content that he will communicate in his lecture. He must also be confident about this content.
- The audience: The teacher must take into his consideration while preparing for a lecture the previous knowledge of students, their interest and desire, and their number in the class.
- The goals: The teacher must take into his account the learning aims and outcomes which must be stated clearly and precisely.
- The learning environment: The teacher needs also to think of the teaching room, the facilities and equipment available such as Data Show Projector, Computer Lab., Recorder, etc. He must be confident of their operation as well.
In summary, in order to plan the teaching and learning process effectively, university teachers should possess a set of competencies that enable them to do that. This set of competencies is related to stating learning goals and objective clearly, selecting appropriate content, determining effective teaching strategies, using assessment methods and techniques to evaluate students learning effectively. University teachers should also take into their account a group of variables, such as the students in terms of their needs, their level, and their desire; the time allotted for teaching the course; and the facilities available.
2.4.2. Implementing teaching
After planning teaching and preparing all the necessary components for it, it comes the process of implementing teaching according to the schedule already prepared in the stage of planning. This process includes structuring and arranging the physical classroom environment; using appropriate teaching strategies, methods, techniques, and activities; and communicating effectively with students both verbally and nonverbally.
2.4.2.1. Physical classroom environment
The physical classroom environment refers to desks and chairs, facilities, spaces, etc. which can affect students learning (Cheng, 1994). It also refers to the seating of students and the overall atmosphere and order in the classroom (Kaser, 2007). The importance of preparing the physical classroom environment comes out of the fact that classroom arrangement “sets the stage for learning” (Conway, 2011, p. 33), and that students cannot concentrate on learning unless they feel comfortable in the classroom (Danielson, 2007), and that the communication that occurs in the classroom either between the teacher and students or among students is affected by seating arrangement of students (Hong-li, 2011; McCorskey & McVetta, 1978), and that the physical characteristics and arrangement of learning environments “can affect learners emotionally, with important cognitive and behavioural consequences” (Graetz, 2006, p. 62). Therefore, more attention should be paid to the management style in the classroom while training teachers, so that they can develop their skills to establish a classroom environment effectively for the sake of creating an appropriate environment for students development and learning (Cheng, 1994).
The classroom should be arranged in a way that facilitates the interaction between the teacher and students and among students and improves and facilitates learning. It should also be arranged in a way that accommodates the various activities of the lecture and facilitates the movement of both the teacher and students as Kaser (2007) stated. Similarly, Dunbar (2004) stated that the main aim of arranging the classroom seating environment is to facilitate students instruction and the mobility of teachers to monitor students. Dunbar also mentioned some points that teachers should take into their account while arranging the classroom seating environment: the ability of students to see the teacher, the board, or any presented thing; the flexibility of changing the classroom seating environment according to learning activities; and the ability to move in the classroom easily.
McCorskey and McVetta (1978) referred to three common ways for arranging students in the classroom:
- The traditional arrangement: It takes the form of a group of rows. It is used mainly if the purpose of the class is to communicate information to students as it minimizes the interaction among students and maximizes the focus on the teacher.
- The semi-circular arrangement: It is also called u-shape. It is used when interaction between the teacher and students and among students themselves are required. This way of arrangement can facilitate interaction among students and with the teacher as well.
- The modular arrangement: It takes the form of clusters. It is used in activities that enhance student-student interaction and cooperative learning in the classroom such as task group.
- The pair arrangement: The researcher finds it important to add this arrangement which can be used for activities that involve two students working together.
The use of these types of arrangements should be determined by the type of the desired communication and interaction in the classroom and the type of activities.
In brief, it is very important that university teachers should be able to arrange their classroom environment in a way that matches the learning activities, makes the interaction between them and their students and among students more easy, and enhances students learning.
Another aspect that is related to structuring the physical classroom environment is classroom decoration. The classroom can be decorated with colours, posters, wallpapers, etc. These aspects of decoration can influence the mood, perceptions, and performance of students in the classroom (Stone & English, 1998). They can also communicate a powerful message to students regarding the teaching-learning activities and subjects (Marzano & Brown, 2009).
According to Walker (1997), the decoration of the classroom should be related to what students are learning. In other words, the posters or visual cues used to decorate the classroom should contain academic information related to the teaching learning process. Walker suggested some principles for using such materials in the classroom:
- They should be hanged in areas where students are most likely to look when they go off task.
- They should be visible during daily work so that students can see and copy from them.
- They should be taken down from the most important parts of the study courses, such as unit reviews.
- They should be produced as far as possible by students themselves.
Hanging aesthetically pleasing posters on the classroom’s walls can create a pleasant environment which likely promotes positive attitudes and behaviours in the classroom. It can also create “a content-specific” environment for students if scientific posters are hanged in the classroom (Hubenthal & O’Brien, 2009. p. 2). Therefore, teachers should encourage students to decorate their classrooms with aesthetical posters to create a positive environment for learning. They should also encourage them to hang content posters which can serve as reminders of key concepts of topics. A third important element related to structuring the classroom physical environment is using music in the classroom. Music is a natural stimulus that can enhance concentration and set a positive mood (Brewer, 2009).
[...]
- Quote paper
- Marwan Saeed Saif Moqbel (Author), 2015, Designing a Proposed Training Programme for Developing Teaching Competencies of Yemeni University English Teachers, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1346138
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