Cyber Victimisation. The Cyber World and the Digital Dangers for Youths and Adolescents

Tesis (Bachelor) , 2022 , 73 Páginas , Calificación: 2:1

Derecho - Derecho procesal penal, criminología, régimen penitenciario

In this dissertation, crimes and abuse through the internet and social media are explored. Violence and crime arising from use of ICTs, including financial fraud, phishing, data breaching, identity theft, cyber extortion, sexual exploitation, harassment and cyberbullying against youths are considered. The contributing factors that cause and effect such youth victimisation are discussed and potential preventative measures are highlighted. The overall aim of this research study is to increase knowledge and awareness of cybercrime risks, in order to reduce youth victimisation to the fullest extent. This study will assist parents, carers, teachers, educators and future researchers in providing a more efficient and tailored response to educating youths on such dangers. A secondary based research method will be conducted to achieve this.

Cyberspace in general, and cybercrime in particular, are comparatively recent phenomena. As technological advancements continue to develop, the internet and social media develop in tandem. The complex nature of the digital world exposes the vulnerable to exploitation in ways yet to be imagined, constant vigilance must be maintained as technology develops. Conflict between free speech and the need for measures to counter those with evil intent, known legally as cybercrime, is a fascinating dilemma. The increased availability of the internet has enabled cyber-criminals to exploit human and security vulnerabilities and commit acts of violence against youths through the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs). Accordingly, youths who utilise the internet and related technologies are more vulnerable to ICT-facilitated exploitation, which is usually difficult to detect and control.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background information
1.2 Aims and objectives
1.3 Research methodology
1.4 Dissertation structure

CHAPTER 2: COMMON CYBERCRIMES AND THE RISKS TO YOUTH
2.1 Financial fraud
2.2 Phishing
2.3 Malware
2.4 Data breaching
2.5 Identity theft
2.6 Cyber extortion
2.7 Online sexual exploitation of youngsters
2.8 Cyber bullying
Chapter conclusion

CHAPTER 3: THE EFFECTS OF CYBERCRIME ON YOUTH
3.1 Factors that increase youth cyber vulnerability
3.1.1 Disability
3.1.2 Lifestyle exposure and routine activity theory
3.1.3 Over confidence and self-efficiency theory
3.2 Cybercrime and the well-being of youth
3.3 Fear of cybercrime victimisation
Chapter Conclusion

CHAPTER 4: CYBERCRIME PREVENTION METHODS
4.1 Cybercrimes - Awareness and understanding
4.2 Insights for parents and carers
4.3 Insights for educators
4.4 Law enforcement responses to cyber-crimes
Chapter conclusion

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions
5.2 Recommendations

REFERENCE LIST

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background information

New advances in Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have allowed adults, as well as children, to enjoy great opportunities and benefits in terms of communication, sharing of data and Information, dissemination of knowledge, learning and entertainment (Leach, 2008). ICTs include the technological components of modern computing that facilitate the transmission, creation and exchange of data and information (Wang et al., 2020). However, these technological advancements have opened up more opportunities for crime against children and adolescents, who are more vulnerable to online exploitation and abuse than adults. There is no singular deviant subculture operating online but instead, a number of subcultures focused on distinct types of cybercrime, such as financial fraud, phishing, data breaching, identity theft, cyber extortion, sexual exploitation, harassment and cyber- bullying, (Bada et al., 2021) which will be explored further in chapter two.

In today's society, the Internet and social media are embedded in the lives of adolescents. ICTs are now as crucial to a youth's education and social development as they are to the global economy as a whole. "Children are the most vulnerable sections of society and are easily exploited in the cyber world due to their lack of maturity and awareness' ' (Kumar, 2021). According to the UNICEF Office of Research, adolescents under the age of 18 make up one- third of all Internet users worldwide. Global data suggests that children's usage is also growing, both in terms of the number of children who have access and the length of time they spend online (UNICEF Office of Research, 2019).

Modern society currently operates in a state where both offline and online domains co-exist. It may be thought that adolescents live in a digital world where the divisions between offline and online no longer constitute separate social spaces (May-Chahal, et al., 2014). It is undeniable that the offline world is influenced by the digital world, and vice versa, but for youths the boundaries distinguishing one from the other are becoming increasingly blurred. Children and adolescents can now communicate easily with people they would otherwise not normally interact with, and those relationships are detrimentally branching into the real world. These people could include, mutual friends, a love interest or a complete stranger who had no connection to any of their friends. These connections can occur without adult supervision, raising many concerns and questions.

Given their age, it is difficult for youths to assess the opportunities and risks of utilising the internet, social media and other digital technologies, even as more and more of their lives are digitally recorded, potentially causing long-term effects on their privacy, (Hourcade, 2015) safety and wellbeing. Children and adolescents who use the Internet and related technologies are usually unable to properly understand the dangers and risks of being subjected to illegal and clandestine activities carried out through the use of these ICTs (Cyber Crime Strategy, 2010). Thus, youths can easily fall victim to online abuses and exploitation. Furthermore, due to the rapid growth of technology development and the fact that children typically adapt faster to new technologies than adults, it may be hard for parents, guardians, and caregivers to monitor their children's activities online. Consequently, providing accurate explanations and education about the dangers to youths is even more crucial (National Crime Agency, 2022).

Anyone can be a victim of cybercrime. However, youths are more likely to be victims of cybercrime as they are spending additional time online and due to new technological developments, child predators and cyber-crimes against children are at an all-time high (Office for National Statistics, 2021). Victimisation is the process of becoming a victim, which is defined as a person who experiences physical, mental, or emotional harm or financial loss as a result of the actions of someone else. These behaviours might be criminal offences or non­criminalized detrimental behaviours (EUCPN; Toolbox series, 2019).

As the world becomes more connected through internet technology, plenty of new dangers and risks also emerge. With more people using the Internet and an expanding use of mobile devices, the circumstances are ideal for cyber-criminals to utilise technology to abuse and exploit youths. Thus, it is vital for parents, carers, teachers and policymakers to understand the scope, risks and nature of cybercrime, as well as how the issue is constantly evolving and whether interventions to prevent it are having an impact. This will help to prevent youth victimisation, increase youth awareness of cybercrimes and aid the creation of strong evidence-based policy decisions in this area, which is crucial in the context of rising types of cybercrime and technological advancements (Home Office, 2013).

Youngsters have long been seen as ideal targets of internet crime and criminal activities by both inter-familial offenders and strangers as they are often trusting, curious, naive, and yearning for affection (Batool, 2020). However, young people are not historically seen as credible witnesses which is likely to be the most appealing factor to online predators. The danger to children and adolescents is considerably higher today as the internet and social media provide predator anonymity. Since predators can be anonymous, they may feel uninhibited by normal social standards of behaviour (Wolak et al., 2013). They can behave without the fear of judgement or getting caught if they hide their true self or create fake profiles. Individuals and criminal enterprises can use the ability to mask their true identities to abuse and exploit youths by pretending to be someone else. Therefore, this contributes to an increased tendency to commit crime online that predators may not usually commit in person.

Regulators and law enforcement bodies have a challenging time identifying and prosecuting offenders and crime syndicates who use fake profiles. It also makes it more difficult for social media services, networks and other users to address the abusers who violate the terms of service, using methods like banning and suspending, as well as preventing, recognising, and removing multiple accounts controlled by a single person (eSafety Commissioner, 2021).

Previous and current research findings are critical in providing the evidence base that will guide community and stakeholder efforts to improve youth online safety (Livingstone et al.; UKCCIS, 2017). Evidence can be used to evaluate the extent and scale of such issues, as well as to address erroneous public fears, ultimately guiding and improving policy and practise. It can also track changes in the behaviour and practices of youths, allowing for the updating of guidance, assisting in the framing and understanding of complex questions of which we lack common sense answers - such as the nature of youth vulnerability in the cyber world. There is a lack of research that has comprehensively investigated and explored the growing issue of youth cyber victimisation and poor cybercrime awareness amongst youths. Thus, it is crucial that this thesis helps to understand and fill these gaps in research.

According to Eddolls (2016), the cybercrime threat to youths is constantly growing as cybercriminals and predators adapt to their online behaviour and contemporary security measures. Hence why education is the key to cybercrime prevention. One can avoid online predators by teaching children about the risks and dangers of the internet, and how to use it cautiously.

1.2 Aims and objectives

As the Internet becomes more prevalent in people's life, particularly amongst youths and adolescents, it is crucial that cyber awareness is improved. This could be done by recognising how it affects all aspects of how one lives, works and plays, as well as identifying common cyber threats and strengthening cybersecurity defences. When it comes to cybercrime prevention, education and awareness-raising are especially crucial. Consequently, the objectives of this research study are to discuss the common types of cybercrime against youths, the key factors that may increase youth vulnerability online, the effects of cybercrime upon the young victims and the measures needed to prevent such crimes. This paper will also review the Internet's overall effect on the evolution of cybercrime. The aims of this research study are to raise awareness of cybercrime and security, give people the confidence to use the internet safely and without fear and reduce youth victimisation online. This study will assist families, carers, teachers, businesses and educators in providing a more efficient and tailored response to educating youths on the risks and dangers of cybercrime. There is still little evidence that specific instruments to safeguard rights of youths, in regard to dataveillance, sexual exploitation or cyberbullying have been developed or utilised, and these issues require more attention and investigation.

1.3 Research methodology

To answer the research aims and objectives described in the introduction of this study, a secondary based research method was conducted which analysed and discussed the research issue using appropriate pre-existing material collected elsewhere. The reason for using secondary research is simply because of the overly sensitive nature of the topic being discussed. It would be extremely risky to perform primary research such as interviews or questionnaires because asking children and adolescents about their feelings, opinions and personal experiences may have proved ethically difficult (NSPCC Learning, 2020). Children who have been victims of cybercrime, online sexual exploitation or abuse in the past could also be particularly vulnerable to re traumatisation so participating in primary research would be stressful. There are no ethical considerations concerning the scope of this thesis because the methodology is based on published work. There were no ethical difficulties detected in this analysis.

Secondary research is more appropriate as it helps to gain a broader understanding of the subject matter quickly and efficiently as well as provide case material for educating, teaching and methodological development (Anderson et al., 2005). This method will also help to collect, analyse and understand the existing information (Dakduk & Gonzalez, 2018). According to Hart (1998), there are three processes to collecting the correct and appropriate research: first, conduct a detailed search of the resources, then continue from these source materials to collect initial studies, and last, conduct (secondary) evaluations of the included literature.

All studies that do not have the main subject of cybercrime, risks and dangers of cybercrime or youth victimisation with a focus on cyber awareness, individual fear and online behaviours, are excluded from this thesis. Only studies published in English are included. The search also has no time limit as the issue under examination is relatively new.

A variety of literature formats was used to obtain a diverse range of valuable and useful literature in order to conduct this study. Research sources such as textbooks, government legislation, online websites, journal articles, technical reports and open-source police databases are utilised and accessed via the internet, search engines and the Portsmouth University library. Additionally, this literature-based research project will demonstrate to others how the research fits within a larger field of study. A key search engine used throughout is google scholar which helps to pick keywords from the title of this project to navigate through useful papers and scholarly articles. Using the University of Portsmouth's online library database made it easier to collect relevant information, as it narrows down the most useful sources and enables eBooks to be downloaded.

The limitations of this secondary based research are that other research studies may include potential bias in answers, self-selection bias as well as potentially poor questions from researchers. This may need to be considered when reading, discussing and analysing.

1.4 Dissertation structure

This dissertation has five chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the topic of interest, provides background information and discusses the aims and objectives of the study. Chapter 2 Introduces the common types of cybercrimes against youths and explores ways to identify and address such crimes. Chapter 3 considers the key factors that could increase youth cyber victimisation and the effects and impacts of cybercrimes on youths. The fourth chapter analysis's and discusses various cybercrime prevention methods, insights for parents, carers and educators as well as a number of law enforcement responses. Lastly, chapter five includes the conclusions, discussions and recommendations to elaborate, look ahead and consider any implications of the findings for future theory and practice. This structure was used to present the main topic areas and arguments coherently in order to help the reader follow the ideas easily.

CHAPTER 2: COMMON CYBERCRIMES AND THE RISKS TO YOUTH

Cyber criminals seek to exploit human and security vulnerabilities. However, recently there has been a significant growth in cyber criminality targeting youths. Increasing awareness of cybercrime is essential for its prevention, as well as educating youths on the online risks they are particularly vulnerable to. This chapter reviews common cybercrimes, specifically those often experienced by youths and adolescents, and discusses how online dangers to youths could be avoided. Furthermore, our understanding of cyberspace, its emergence, and the extent of the effect it has on youths is crucial in our effort to control and regulate it. Thus, the link between technological developments and youth cyber victimisation will also be explored.

2.1 Financial fraud

Financial fraud is the most common crime in Britain today. The CyberEdge 2022 Cyberthreat Defence Report (CDR) found that ''in the UK, 81.4 percent of organizations had experienced at least one cyber-attack, in the year prior to the study, compared to 71.1 percent in the previous annual findings'' (O' Driscoll, 2022). Financial fraud occurs when someone deprives you of your money or harms financial health through manipulation, online fraud, or other illegal acts. There is a trend in younger 'digital natives'; a person who was born or raised in the digital age, falling victim to online financial fraud as technology develops. Youths and adolescents are being targeted by cyber criminals who are taking advantage of their naivete and dependency on technology and social media to make money illegally (Machado et al., 2021). The most common types of financial fraud include identity theft, phishing, embezzlement, tax fraud, credit or debit card fraud and Insurance fraud.

People between the ages of 16 and 34 are more likely to be defrauded, accounting for more than half of all frauds and scams in the UK (Local Government Association, 2021). According to research studies, one in every five people aged 16 to 34 had been scammed in the last few years, compared to only 4% of people aged 55 and up (Local Government Association, 2021). With so many people, especially youths using their phones for communicating, playing games, banking, shopping and scheduling appointments, it is increasingly possible to misinterpret a text or email from a fraudster.

Internet-based frauds and scammers which target youths tend to use social media. Youngsters can be technologically adept. However, they also tend to be more trusting online than older age groups. The recent covid-19 pandemic and lockdowns have helped establish a perfect storm of youth fear and scammer opportunities that still plays out on most of the main social media platforms (Janet Fowler; Investopedia, 2021). The trust and naiveté of youth makes phishing for personal information and financial details easier for identity fraudsters. Young people are often unaware that they are disclosing personal information or data that could be used to commit identity theft and other types of fraud. This may be because they have less education, less distaste for financial risks and less exposure to phishing training (Sheng et al. 2010).

Many financial fraud and scams also take the form of advertisements and offers online, promising high-end goods at attractive prices. According to Steve Weisman, a nationally recognised scam specialist, "teens and millennials are significant internet spenders for pricey goods" (Fowler; Investopedia, 2021). Youths and adolescents are frequently deceived and fooled into visiting fake websites that take their bank details and money without selling anything, or into providing personal information that is used for identity theft and phishing, or into clicking on links which install malware. Other types of online scams include contests, scholarships, and job offers that require the youngster to pay a fee or deposit.

2.2 Phishing

Phishing is a type of social engineering and manipulation attack in which cyber- criminals trick victims into revealing personal information or installing malware. A victim can put their personal information, login details and financial details, including credit card information, at risk just by clicking a link. Phishing is still one of the easiest ways for cyber criminals to obtain this data. Malicious attachments or links to malicious websites are the main methods used in the majority of phishing attacks (IT Governance, n.d). When victims open an attachment in a phishing email, it can spread malware that can disrupt and destroy data and steal crucial information. Documents, PDFs, e-files, and voicemail messages can all be used to mask these attachments.

Adolescents are probably the best target for phishers. "Under-25s are more than twice as likely to fall for a phishing scam than over-55s", according to data from Get Safe Online (Get Safe Online, 2017). Younger children benefit from parental supervision and mature adults are more careful in their online activities. Teenagers, with their eagerness to explore and lack of judgement tend to be more susceptible to phishing attacks since they are typically 'more careless and overly trusting; they are also, nowadays, more technically savvy and can quickly circumvent parental controls and other restrictions' (Brecht; INFOSEC institute, 2017).

Other types of phishing, such as spear phishing, whaling, and vishing, are also used by cyber­criminals. Spear phishing is an email or electronic communications scam that targets a specific group of individuals with a lower profile. Whaling exclusively targets high ranking members within an organisation Whereas vishing is the use of telephony to carry out phishing attacks. The attacker usually uses caller ID spoofing to trick victims into thinking a phone call is coming from a reputable business or a local area code.

Youths and adolescents use the internet constantly which plays a significant role in why they are more likely to fall for phishing scams (Parker & Flowerday, 2020). Furthermore, if you are frequently online and haven't been phished or targeted by an attack, it is easy to make mistakes, become complacent or underestimate the risks involved. That, along with internet users' natural inclination to consume material fast before moving on, could explain why "just 40% of under- 25s indicated that they thoroughly read and re-read all emails'' (Irwin; IT Governance, 2017).

Thus, youths are far more likely to disclose personal information on social media sites, websites, phone applications and other similar platforms. Cyber-criminals are using these platforms to assemble specific information that can lead to highly authentic phishing scams.

2.3 Malware

Viruses and malware are programmes that can attack and infect computers, phones, and other digital devices "without the user's knowledge or consent, usually for financial gain" (Arce, 2018). If a device gets infected with malware, it can be severely harmed very quickly. It may freeze, reboot, crash or slow down the infected machine. A virus duplicates itself and attaches itself to other files to spread. Email attachments, malicious advertisements, phoney software installations, infected USB drives, infected applications, phishing emails, and even text messages are all common malware attack strategies (McAfee, 2019). Many individuals believe they are protected and safe online, not knowing that this aggressive malware 'attack' will be undetected by antivirus software. It will install itself in such a way that any triggers detected by antivirus software will be disabled (Amplify Intelligence, 2020).

There are many types of malware including viruses, scareware, adware, worms, and trojans. Malware can be used for a variety of purposes. These may include, deceiving a victim into providing personal information for identity theft, stealing a victim's credit card information or other financial details, assuming control of multiple computers to launch denial-of-service attacks against other network systems, as well as infecting digital devices and using them to mine for cryptocurrency (McAfee, 2019).

Digital devices owned by youths are more likely to be infected with malware. This may be due to the fact that children are less likely to be aware of the dangers. Cyber-criminals look for vulnerabilities in older or outdated software, and youngsters may not have the most up-to-date security software installed (Vallarelli, 2020). A child may be more oblivious of an attack or less suspicious that something wrong is happening than an adult would be. For example, if a spam- bot attacks the computer and continues to send spam emails or malicious advertisements for a long period of time, a younger child may ignore it or not know what's going on.

2.4 Data breaching

Research suggests that the mediated nature of social network communication facilitates greater self-disclosure of personal data than face-to-face interaction (Xie & Kang, 2015). Subsequently, data breaches are on the rise, affecting both individuals and businesses. A data breach can result in sensitive personal information being made public, which is something that young internet users are concerned about. When personal data is stolen, it can cause stress and inconvenience, such as having to change passwords regularly, putting credit freezes in place or identity monitoring. According to IT Governance, 1,243 security incidents were found in 2021 (involving 5,126,930,507 records). In comparison to the 1,120 security incidents in 2020, this represents an increase of 11%. (Irwin; IT Governance, 2022).

A child's data is collected from birth, in digital societies and typically includes large amounts of information acquired even before they reach the age of two (UNICEF, 2018). The Global Kids Online research found strong age trends in four countries, with older children being more confident in their digital skills and technological knowledge than their younger peers. Young children, ages 9-13, showed less proficiency and knowledge in managing their online privacy settings than teenagers, aged 14-17. (Byrne et al., 2016).

Physical privacy is violated when tracking, monitoring, or live streaming technologies can be used to reveal a youth's image, actions, or location. Threats to communication privacy are also at risk because unintended recipients will have access to posts, conversations, and other personal messages. Violation of information privacy can happen with the collection, storage and processing of personal data about youths, especially if it is done without their knowledge or consent.

Schools must take data protection seriously since the dangers and risks of a data breach for children and adolescents are greater than for most adults, as a breach can jeopardise their safety and confidence in the use of the internet.

2.5 Identity theft

Identity theft occurs when personal information is stolen, such as social security number and birth date for their own financial gain (Saunders & Zucker, 2010). This could be to open bank accounts, take out credit or debit cards and apply for state benefits in the victim's name. Scammers are frequently strangers, but they could also be a family member or close friend.

Identity theft is very common and youths are frequently targeted because they have not yet have a credit profile (Lukic, 2021). As a result, the fraudster can steal their identity and use the benefits sometimes for years before the damage is discovered.

Another reason may be because youths and adolescents are very reliant on technology and spend a lot of their time online (Office for National Statistics, 2021). This can make them visible targets for identity thieves. They are more likely to share personal details on social media or other platforms and be unaware of the dangers involved with this.

Additionally, because the risk of becoming a victim is not on their mind, youths are often key targets for identity theft (Morad, 2014) and (Steijn & Vedder, 2015, Steijn et al., 2016).

Youngsters do not understand the full impact of identity theft, until it's too late. Some consequences can include the inability to obtain student loans, purchase a mobile phone, find employment, or secure housing. Victims of identity theft will also feel overwhelmed which may lead to other concerns such as anxiety, stress, helplessness, anger, betrayal and isolation.

2.6 Cyber extortion

Threats and cyber extortion are crimes that use cyber records and data to threaten and exploit the other party for financial gain. Cyber extortion is also a form of blackmail in which the blackmailer exerts pressure and coercion on the victim to comply with a demand (Abdulhameed, 2021). The blackmailer may threaten to post the victim's private or sensitive matters, as well as confidential material on media platforms. The many methods of cyber-extortion continue to evolve in tandem with technological advancements. Despite legislative amendments, the rate of this crime is still increasing as more sophisticated means of exploiting victims are employed (ITU Publications, 2012).

The perpetrator usually targets victims who are more vulnerable, such as children and adolescents. Women and girls are frequently targeted for the intention of releasing their explicit or private images or conversations. This form of extortion can also affect males, though to a smaller scale than females (Duggan, 2017).

Like other forms of abuse, online extortion and blackmail can inflict serious emotional and mental trauma on young people as well as have long-term detrimental consequences in their personal life, education, and employment (Children's Commissioner, 2019).

2.7 Online sexual exploitation of youngsters

Sexual exploitation is when a predator utilises the Internet and social media to form online interactions or relationships with children to enable their abuse and exploitation. The goal is usually to develop trust and then meet the children offline to pursue the relationship further (Henson et al., 2011). This online grooming method allows an offender to have regular, everyday contact with a child, which is unlikely in normal circumstances, unless the predator is a family member, friend, or caretaker for the child. The grooming strategy can occur over an extended period of time, or it can take hours, days, or even minutes to turn sexual because of the naive trust and openness of unguarded children.

A UK cybercrime research study estimated that "850,000 cases of unwanted online sexual approaches were made in chat rooms during 2006 and that 238 offences of meeting a child following sexual grooming were recorded'' (International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children, 2017).

Cybercrime has emerged as a result of technological advancements. Through social media, chat rooms, dating websites and platforms such as Zoom or Teams, the Internet has revolutionised how we share ideas and information. Some of these virtual spaces exist to sell and share photographs of child sexual abuse and obscene images of minors, as well as to communicate and form sexual relationships with them (Quayle & Ribisl, 2012). This use of computer based communication has grown exponentially over the last decade, especially amongst children. According to the NSPCC, figures show that in 2015 'more than 3,000 sexual offences against children were committed in the UK with the use of Internet technologies' (NSPCC, 2018).

The Internet is used in a variety of diverse ways, such as to seduce, entice and groom vulnerable children, to store and circulate sexual photographs, to persuade children to take inappropriate photographs of themselves, plan meetups and communicate, and apparently be supportive and caring. This is happening in all sectors of society.

Groomers will use charm, seduction, apparent emotional support, blackmail, threats, sexualized games, manipulation, deception, and bribery to persuade their young victims to provide sexually explicit content or information.

Children and teens who have been sexually exploited or abused online frequently feel guilty or 'complicit' in what has occurred and the online activity is being kept secret from their parents (Lanning, 2005). Some young people have expressed fear about the consequences of telling others, such as threats by the offender to share and spread the inappropriate photographs if they tell anyone about the incident, let alone their family discovering the youngsters behaviour.

Technology allows perpetrators to interact with multiple young victims. It also gives children and young people, as well as criminals, the impression of anonymity, making it much easier to say and do things online that would be unthinkable in person making the grooming process easier, enabling far speedier sexualisation of criminally intentioned approaches to potential young victims, and impacts sexual expression by allowing for the exploration of sexual interests (Mitchell et al., 2005).

The use of the internet to recruit children for sexual purposes is becoming more common The internet is valued by criminals as it is easily accessed, affordable, and most crucially, it can be anonymous (Beech et al., 2008; Dombrowski et al., 2007; Graham, 2000; Mitchell et al., 2005a). As offenders can stay anonymous or disguise their identity and intentions, a child may assume he or she is communicating with another child, a trusted "friend," or a loving parental figure (ECPAT, 2020) and there is evidence that most child sexual abuse and exploitation is committed by adults in the child's circle of trust (Lanzarote Committee, 2015). An offender may lurk in online chat rooms or on the victim's social media platforms collecting information until a chance comes to move the conversation with a child to a private or direct chat room or to a cell phone, and they could then organise to meet face-to-face (Aftab 2000, Carr 2001). To hide their identities, a number of offenders use encryption technology. Armstrong and Forde (2003) state that “paedophiles are undoubtedly skilled in the use of encryption, as well as the practise of internet anonymity” (p. 212).

The Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre (CEOP) in the UK discovered that online sexual crime has shifted in recent years, focusing more on web-based communication platforms, in order to coerce minors to take indecent images or engage in sexual chats via web cams. This means that the offender can partake in live sexual action on line. Webcams enable for real-time visual and audio interaction, but they can also be used to document, record and even share sexual misconduct without the victims' consent (LAUREA; Melto, 2021).

Technological advancements enable perpetrators to avoid detection. The simplicity and ease with which this medium allows child sexual predators to connect and interact with each other to create and share content and the ability to access new young victims, either offline or through online platforms such as instant messenger or social networking sites, is a major challenge facing law enforcement agencies. Hundreds of cyber criminals can be found in online paedophile networks around the world (Cyber Crime Strategy, 2010). This makes it almost impossible to prevent sexual exploitation and creates substantial difficulties when attempting to remove exploitative and pornographic content.

Sexual exploitation of naive youngsters can seriously affect their mental health and wellbeing throughout their lives emotionally and professionally while giving rise to suicidal thoughts, guilt and paranoia.

2.8 Cyber bullying

Bullying has been identified as a major risk factor in modern society and one of the most significant social issues affecting youths and adolescents today. With the new and developing modern forms of technology, this problem is increasingly moving from face-to-face bullying to cyberbullying. Similarly, to traditional bullying, cyberbullying has been defined as “an unpleasant or aggressive act carried out repeatedly and over time by a group or an individual using electronic forms and social media platforms against a victim who cannot effectively protect himself or herself” (Smith et al., 2008). Cyber bullying, in this sense, is a systematic abuse of power that takes place through the use of ICTs (Patchin & Hinduja, 2006). Mobile phones and internet usage contribute to this power imbalance by enabling bullies to perform certain acts and abilities that would not be possible in conventional bullying. The ability to stay anonymous, repeated aggressive acts, technical ability with ICTs, and the potential for a huge audience are among these attributes. This makes cyberbullying relentless and often, crueller than face to face nastiness.

Research studies indicate that the media enables bullies to be more powerful, provides victims less power to manage the problem, or lowers the threshold disparity in power required for abuse and victimisation (Dooley et al., 2009, Slonje et al. 2013, Sticca & Perren, 2013). Bullying with digital technology allows cyberbullies to harm their victims at any time of day, without having concerns about the consequences of their acts due to being able to stay anonymous online (Wright, 2014b). The ability to stay anonymous while interacting online has the potential to cause the online disinhibition effect among youths. This effect may cause some youngsters to do or say things to others online that they would never normally do or say offline (Suler, 2004, Wright, 2014a).

Anonymity and reduced face-to-face contact enhance three characteristics of cyberbullying: the victim's heightened fear and helplessness, reduced power needed to be a bully and the reduced levels of shame and remorse for the bully (Slonje et al., 2013, Slonje, Smith, & Frisén, 2012, Vandebosch & Van Cleemput, 2008). Although power in traditional bullying may be based on physical (stature) or social (basic competence or popularity), cyberbullying and online power may simply be based on proficiency. That is, youths who can manage and navigate the cyber world and use technologies to bully others are in a position of power when compared to a victim (Patchin & Hinduja, 2006).

Dooley, Pyzalski, and Cross (2009) proposed a second component of power imbalance in cyberbullying: that because the material remains in cyberspace, it is more difficult to erase or avoid it, and that this might make the victim feel more helpless.

There are many effects of cyberbullying on youths and adolescents. These can involve emotional distress, embarrassment, guilt, fear and hurt, or mental problems like depression, anxiety, paranoia, academic issues and low self-esteem. Increasing levels of cyberbullying have consistently been linked to suicide (Nixon, 2014).

93 percent of those who have been bullied online have expressed feelings of sadness, powerlessness, and helplessness (Nixon, 2014). Cyberbullying may also lead to behavioural effects such as withdrawal from general life or engaging in secretive behaviour. Self-harm, changes in eating and sleeping habits can also result from Cyber bullying.

2.9 Harassment

Online harassment is a common phenomenon with consequential implications, particularly for adolescents and youths who are more likely to engage in high-risk online behaviour. According to some researchers, it is one of the most dangerous threats facing today's youth (Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007). Ybarra and Mitchell (2004) define online harassment as "an overt, intentional act of aggression towards another person online" (p.1308). It can also be defined as rude, threatening, or abusive content directed towards another by strangers or friends, through the use of ICTs (Wolak et al., 2007; Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2007). Online harassment refers to unwanted communications or acts that are usually persistent and contain unpleasant and inappropriate material which do not stop even if the victim requests that contact with the harasser be ceased. Teens who share their identities and thoughts online are much more likely to be victimised and harassed than those who are less active online.

EU Kids Online qualitative research by Livingstone et al. (2014b) found that boys are more likely to be concerned about violent content online while girls are more concerned about contact and conduct-related risks. However, according to Pew Research Centre (2007), boys and girls have been harassed online in similar proportions, although girls are more likely to be the victims of rumour-spreading or non-consensual explicit messages. Boys are more likely to be embarrassed or ashamed when they are subjected to online harassment and abuse. When it comes to girls, however, the harassment is more likely to be gendered, sustained, sexually suggestive, and linked to offline violence.

Online harassment can occur in several ways, including the disclosure and sharing of personal details to strangers who abuse the victims' trust, or the posting of personal details on social networking sites without regard for the security and privacy measures available (Ybarra et al., 2007; Ybarra & Mitchell, 2008). According to research in the privacy arena, youths and adolescents who are inclined to participate in high-risk behaviour online are more vulnerable to online predators, inappropriate content, and harassment in cyberspace (Lwin et al., 2008). This could be due to their cognitive characteristics (egocentrism, self-absorption and personal fable) as well as their brain maturation process (Dahl, 2004, Reyna & Farley, 2006). Bullying has entered the digital era. The motives and impulses are the same, but the effects are amplified.

Chapter conclusion

The level of awareness of these online risks is not always clearly articulated or acknowledged. The criminals behind such crimes are organised and seek to take advantage of youths using the internet and online platforms. Often, they exploit youth vulnerabilities in order to steal passwords, personal data, or money directly, or to communicate, groom, abuse and bully them, as discussed above. The key cybercrimes and threats must be recognised and understood first in order to properly educate youths and prevent cyber victimisation.

CHAPTER 3: THE EFFECTS OF CYBERCRIME ON YOUTH

The most dangerous aspect of cybercrime against youths is that many victims fail to acknowledge the causes and effects of such offenses and online abuse. Before considering and discussing the effects of cybercrime on youths, it is important to explore the key factors that may increase their cyber vulnerability. Thus, being aware and understanding these factors will make it easier to detect and address cybercrimes before they take place, reducing youth victimisation.

3.1 Factors that increase youth cyber vulnerability

3.1.1 Disability

Youths with learning disabilities are increasingly utilising the Internet, yet they are at risk of being victimised online. It is crucial to explore what support is required when learning disability services develop advice and guidance on how to support their Internet usage. There is still a digital divide between youths who are typically developing and those who are disabled, including disparities in technology usage, access and control (Chadwick et al., 2019). According to Shpigelman and Gill (2014), individuals who use the internet and social media, and the potential loss of privacy could pose a greater risk to youths with intellectual disabilities due to potential stigmatisation.

Plichta (2011) suggested that the characteristics of advanced technology, along with the apparent lack of success, need for acceptance or respect and poor social skills of youths with intellectual disabilities can lead to increased victimisation and negative consequences online. Loneliness, anxiety and despair were identified by Normand and Sallafranque-St-Louis (2016) as possible characteristics that increase the risk of online sexual victimisation for disabled individuals. Buijs et al. (2017) also identified that poor insight, knowledge, awareness and judgement are contributing aspects to greater risk and digital exclusion.

Chiner et al. (2020) discovered that students in education and social work thought that youths with learning disabilities were more at risk of cyber victimisation. Additionally, it has been indicated that youths with learning disabilities, who do not recognize or understand the risks involved, engage in more dangerous behaviour online (Bannon et al., 2015).

Lough and Fisher (2016) discovered that youths with learning disabilities may agree to engage in socially risky behaviour. It is possible that those who have difficulty distinguishing between true and untrustworthy information on the internet could contribute to this risky behaviour (Delgado et al., 2019). Concerns regarding Internet use are common among family members, teachers, carers, and supporters of youths with learning disabilities, according to Ramsten et al. (2019).

Other disabilities, such as autism are already characterised by anxiety which can be seriously increased by inability to handle technology. Visual impairment, by its very nature, creates difficulties in the use of technology as do some physical difficulties. Dyslexia, also, can lead to inadvertent misuse of technology.

3.1.2 Lifestyle exposure and routine activity theory

The three elements of Cohen and Felson's routine activity theory are a "potential offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian" (Bottoms & Wiles, 1997, p. 320). To conduct any criminal behaviour, all three elements must be present. Applying this routine activity theory to cybercrime, Alshalan (2006) claims that unsupervised youths who are frequent users of the internet are more likely to be targets.

As discussed in previous chapters, cyberspace provides offenders with more opportunities to find suitable targets and conduct crimes more readily. Exposure to motivated cybercriminals is related to cybercrime victimisation, according to empirical evidence (Marcum et al., 2010, Navarro & Jasinski, 2012).

Some online activities, such as downloading freeware programs or browsing file-sharing websites, put youths at greater risk of being victimised. Activities, such as checking emails or watching videos and news channels online are such examples (Choi, 2008, Moitra, 2005, Yar, 2005, 2006).

Choi (2008) conducted a survey of 204 college students to investigate computer virus attacks. He noted that routine online usage including vocational and leisure activities in cyberspace increases the potential for victimisation. According to the research, college students who have a technological proficient guardian are less at risk of victimisation.

Risky online behaviours and leisure activities enhance the likelihood of cyber threats. Another study discovered that young students who frequently use e-mail are more vulnerable to spam or phishing attacks (Manasrah et al., 2015). Their tendency for engaging in deviant or risky activities online, results in increased youth vulnerability (Cohen & Felson, 1979, Hindelang, et al., 1978).

Modern lifestyle generally involves households with working parents who lack time and computer skills. Inevitably, this can lead to unbridled use of the internet by their children.

3.1.3 Over confidence and self-efficiency theory

The overconfidence hypothesis proposes IT self-efficacy as an expansion of the exposure hypothesis (Cheng et al. 2020). Self-efficacy is a person's belief and confidence in their ability to organise actions and behaviours, cognitive skills, and motivation needed to complete a task effectively (Bandura et al., 1999). However, if a person's self-efficacy and confidence are misplaced, when confidence outweighs performance, the individual may engage in risk - taking or improper behaviour online (Moore & Healy, 2008).

As Tang et al (2014) proposes, "overconfidence may cause people to take an action that they should not take, possibly leading to suboptimal outcomes or even disasters". Wang et al (2016) gives confirmatory examples of the risks of overconfidence. This representation of judgmental confidence and the issue of online overconfidence suggests that youths with higher IT self­efficacy are more likely to be victims of cybercrime due to their frequent usage of technology. However, a better correlation between confidence and accuracy might help the prevention of youth cyber victimisation.

The above illustrates that highly intelligent skilled youngsters can still be victims of cybercrime.

3.2 Cybercrime and the well-being of youth

It has been stated that the rising usage of the internet has created a "critical electronically generated environment in which cybercrime occurs" (Yar, 2013). Cybercrime differs from conventional crime in that it benefits from the timelessness, anonymity and the lack of a restricted space (Yar, 2005). Despite the fact that the majority of cyber-crimes are motivated by financial gain, the emotional and psychological trauma experienced as a result of such attacks is rarely addressed.

Cybercrime can cause considerable financial loss for businesses, but this type of crime also has a significant impact on young individuals. Many victims of cyber-attacks report feeling guilty, frightened, robbed, fearful, vulnerable or afraid that an attack may re-occur (Kamkar & Duquette, 2021).

Financial, employment, or data losses, as well as other forms of losses including personal data or identity theft, can be not only substantial but also devastating. Victims of such crimes may have a feeling of being out of control, which leads to increased anxiety, fear and feeling demoralised (Kamkar & Duquette, 2021).

Personal cybercrime and its impacts on the young have been brought to the attention of researchers. Numerous studies have begun to investigate the relationship between cyberbullying and suicide (Hinduja & Patchin, 2010). The number of victims of cyberbullying who have attempted to commit or have committed suicide has continued to rise in recent years (Bada & R. C. Nurse, 2020).

Mitchell (2007), found that many of the youths undergoing treatment for online sexual exploitation had similar mental health difficulties to those who had undergone offline sexual abuse. Some even had a lifetime diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder (Mitchell, 2007).

Emotional trauma or mental health concerns can range in severity from mild to severe, and can result in symptoms of depression, anxiety, panic attacks, post-traumatic stress, self-harming and even suicide.

Many psychological impacts relating to finances, employment, school, family, and/or relationships can exacerbate mental health conditions (Kamkar & Duquette, 2021). Young victims may also suffer behavioural symptoms after a cyber-attack, including isolation, withdrawal, decreased interest in daily activities, eating disorders, difficulty sleeping, indolence and substance abuse. (Kamkar & Duquette, 2021).

"The emotional harm cybercrime victims experience can range from minor annoyance to life-changing anguish" (Langton & Planty, 2010). Life, in general, for young people is frequently stressful leading to mental health problems. Online victimisation can dramatically increase the fragility of mental stability in the young.

3.3 Fear of cybercrime victimisation

The majority of research into the fear of crime mostly focuses on traditional or physical location- based crimes. However, cyberspace has shifted the nature and extent of criminality (Jaishankar, 2008).

Fear awareness (Leventhal, 1970), or how people inherently identify fear, risk or threat and change their approach in order to minimise the threat, are explained by many frameworks. Investigating the causes of fear reveals some interesting details. The higher the threat, according to Witte (1994), the more fear is exhibited. Furthermore, the threat is linked to a sense of fear rather than an individual’s skill (Witte, 1994).

Fear is a highly subjective emotion that is made up of a variety of diverse feelings, risk or vulnerability estimations and perceptions (Ditton et al., 1999). According to Wynne (2008), fear is a natural reaction to cybercrime. According to Gooch and Williams (2015), even if fear of crime is well founded, it should be based on a true analysis of the situation. Victims of cybercrime normally enhance their caution and thus avoid repetition.

The researchers Roberts, Indermaur, and Spiranovic (2013) looked at the Australian Survey of Social Attitudes from 2007 to see how fear of cybercrime differs from fear of traditional crime and found that identity-related cybercrime (such as credit card fraud or other forms of identity and data theft) matches or surpasses fear of traditional place-based crimes.

Fear of crime in the digital world is influenced by social and physical factors, just as it is in the real world. The impact of fear is influenced by the situation in which people find themselves, but it is also a result of social construction to a certain extent (Altheide, 2002).

Youngsters’ judgement is often impaired by their eagerness to explore and take risks so that the excitement of taking risk can be stronger than any apprehension or fear.

Fear can lead to paranoia, so educationalists must remain vigilant in order to help students maintain a controlled and balanced attitude towards online threats.

Chapter Conclusion

To summarise, the concepts of disability, lifestyle exposure, routine activity, overconfidence, and self-efficacy have been applied to the analysis of youth victimisation. Greater exposure and reduced guardianship increase youth vulnerability to cybercrimes. Additionally, the chapter discussed the association between youth cybercrime victimisation and subjective well-being. Problems, such as anxiety, depression, fear, loss of trust, low self-esteem, impulsivity and deviant behaviours were all found to be associated with youth cyber victimisation. More people fear cybercrime than experience it (Addington, 2011, Jackson, 2009). In order to strengthen and maintain the mental health of youngsters one must consider how they are being victimised, factors that could increase vulnerability, their fear of cybercrime and the extent of the crime.

CHAPTER 4: CYBERCRIME PREVENTION METHODS

Cybercrime is a continually evolving and developing threat as cyber criminals adapt to new security measures and internet users' online behaviour. Regardless of the security measures put in place, cyber criminals always seem to be one step ahead (Eddolls, 2016). Due to the obvious harm it can bring, cybercrime should be treated as a high-priority crime. To stay ahead of cyber criminals, we must prioritise cybercrime prevention, evaluate the actual state of cybercrime accurately and implement proper and appropriate cybercrime prevention methods. Numerous studies have proved the effectiveness and usefulness of peer education to prevent youth cyber victimisation (Stakic et al., 2003; Shiner, 1999; Turner & Shepherd, 1999)

4.1 Cybercrimes - Awareness and understanding

It is essential for families to recognise cyber threats as that is the first step in the safe use of online platforms. Children should be encouraged to report any suspect activity online to their parents and eventually to the police. It is difficult to learn how to completely prevent cybercrime, but you can take the necessary precautions to help protect against cyber-attacks.

Young Internet users should be made aware of the risks and threat to their identity and assets, as well as the potential long-term consequences of their online activity. Furthermore, all users should be informed about the basic rules of online etiquette (Shea, 1994). Buono (2014) describes how cybercrime can be tackled by raising awareness. The majority of young online users are unaware of the dangers that exist in the online world in which they engage and participate. They have only a basic understanding of how the system operates.

Education offers the best route to raising awareness amongst youths and adolescents, as well as parents, caregivers, and educators. It can offer users basic awareness advice about technology, the internet, social media and the risks that come with them (Wall, 2005). This will enable all users to maintain control of their use of internet technology.

The London School of Economics review (2017) discovered that parental enabling mediation and communication was significant in empowering youths and adolescents because it allowed them to experience online risk while developing independent protective measures. Livingstone et al (2018) proposed that training for parents, educators and child support workers should be considered, because the evidence suggests that there are significant gaps in adults' knowledge of risks and protective strategies regarding young people's privacy online. Parents can be made aware of their ability to put a parental block onto all digital devices which children have access to at home.

In the UK, the government has several campaigns in relation to increasing awareness of online users, such as Get Safe Online, the 'Cyber Streetwise', Webwide Campaign, Good to know Google's, Behind the Screen, the Devil's in Your Details and Cyber Security Challenge UK (National Cyber Strategy, 2022). However, these schemes need to be part of an integrated social strategy based upon education in order to be fully effective.

Biswal & Kumar (2021) stipulates the need for strong passwords, setting up firewalls, keeping software updated, managing social media settings to keep any private information secured, having ongoing dialogue with youths about their internet activities, keeping up to date on major security breaches and by taking the right measures to help protect youths and adolescents against personal information theft.

Policymakers must be aware of the extent and nature of cybercrime targeting youths, as well as how the problem is evolving over time and whether existing initiatives are having an impact. This will aid in the creation of strong evidence-based policy decisions in this area, which is critical considering emerging types of cybercrime and technical advancements.

4.2 Insights for parents and carers

Parents and caregivers have a critical role in ensuring that their children understand the importance of safely and appropriately utilising the internet and mobile devices.

One of the key objectives should be to teach positive and responsible online behaviour to youths. For parents and carers, fears about a lack of computer skills or an insufficient understanding of the online environment can be off-putting and even terrifying. Many parents believe that their children are more knowledgeable about the internet and technology than themselves. That can be a challenging problem to overcome (The Education People; Avery & Assiter, 2018). It should be a priority to make parents aware that online safety is less about technology and more about parenting and communication skills.

It is critical for parents to be able to recognise potential risks and threats that their children may face before engaging in further discussions with them (ITU Publications, 2020). Parents should also monitor their children's online activities and engage in what they are doing as much as possible. By being familiar with the content that children watch, share, and create, as well as the people with whom they communicate they can help prevent their children from cyber victimisation.

Parents and carers should also make sure that their children are not spending too much time online to ensure that they are not becoming addicted and an easy target for online predators. Moreover, young online users should be able to recognise an online threat and where they can seek assistance if they were to experience a cyber-attack or threat. This could be a parent, caretaker, a teacher or a cyber helpline.

Some families may believe that prohibiting specific games or websites and putting filters or antivirus software on household devices is sufficient protection for their children. Unfortunately, this strategy ignores the possibility that youngsters could use the internet outside the home or bypass parental security measures (The Education People; Avery & Assiter, 2018). Ideally, young children should be monitored by their parents while online, by talking and engaging with the youngsters about their online use.

It has long been believed that the more time children spend online, the more they endure cyber­attacks. Surprisingly, during the covid pandemic, despite increased usage of online activities including schoolwork, the number of attacks has reduced. This is possibly due to increased security and the family environment. Indicating that quality time within the family is a deterrent to children’s exposure to cybercrime.

4.3 Insights for educators

Cybersecurity awareness must be made the top priority for educational institutions. The most concerning breaches are those in which student safety is jeopardised. Educational institutions have a duty of care for the safety of their students, yet a poor cybersecurity infrastructure puts them at risk (Swivel Secure, 2019). We should be encouraging the implementation of IT security-related learning in education curriculum at all levels. The education sector must address and tackle digital skills shortage, not just within the cybersecurity industry but on their own as well (Umawing, 2018), despite logistical difficulties.

It is important that teaching establishments have comprehensive digital policies and procedures and ensure they are effective and are adhered to by staff and students alike.

Additionally, educators should incorporate social and behavioural learning principles into online safety education because these will help students to understand and manage their emotions so they can have healthy and respectful relations both online and in person (ITU Publications, 2020).

Educational establishments can receive assistance in upskilling their staff by using the resources provided by the Government. The Education and Skills Funding Agency is a government department that provides educators with cybersecurity training through an online resource and training centre. The agency's goal is to help educators become more aware of cybercrime and cybersecurity. It is the responsibility of academy trusts, schools, colleges, and independent training providers (ITPs) to be aware of online irregularities and to meet their duty of care obligations (Education & Skills Funding Agency; Gov.uk, 2019).

The government has announced a new "Cyber Explorers" online training and education platform that will teach cyber skills to youths and adolescents in schools, as well as approaches to improve diversity in the cyber workforce through a new adult scheme that will ensure that people of all backgrounds have access to these high-skill, high-priority job positions.

Schools could appoint an online safety coordinator once all staff have been adequately trained, so students can readily access help when they need it. With a single point of contact in the school and the ability to collect and document online safety occurrences, the school will have a better picture of any concerns regarding cybercrime or trends that need to be resolved. This member of staff should hold regular discussion sessions where students are encouraged to speak openly about their online activities, experiences and cybercrime threats.

4.4 Law enforcement responses to cyber-crimes

The enormous volume of cybercrime vastly exceeds the law enforcement's relative in-house capacity that they possess (House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, 2018). Over the last decade, three key impediments have hindered such law enforcement and the financial industry in the UK from reducing the impact of cybercrime: reporting, investigation, and enforcement. Existing laws and structures have yet to result in successful prosecutions of cyber criminals, some of whom are not based in the UK.

A fundamental rethinking of law enforcement responses to cybercrime at the national and local levels, as well as a better clarification of roles and responsibilities across the financial sector, is required (Dawda et al.; Royal United Services Institute, 2020). The fast-developing technology in modern society means that Government agencies must remain alert and be informed regularly, be aware of new changes, help to educate people and raise awareness in order to control cybercrime.

The national strategy for preventing and addressing cyber-related crime is well-established, but its enforcement outside of national authorities is restricted. The effect and threat of cyber-based crime is frequently underestimated by police agencies, and it is rarely viewed as a top concern (HMICFRS, 2019). This could be due to the overwhelming number of incidents which are also often under-reported. Additionally, individuals and organised gangs do not have to conduct crimes in person because they can remain anonymous online or operating from overseas, making police enforcement incredibly difficult. Good practice knowledge is not shared in an organised or structured way, resulting in too much variation in the local responses to a national threat.

The government released an updated National Cyber Strategy in December 2021, outlining how the UK will strengthen its position as a global cyber power. The government is calling on all sectors of society to contribute to the strategy's goal of bolstering the UK's economic and strategic cybersecurity capabilities. This involves increasing workforce diversity, levelling the cyber sector across the UK, boosting offensive and defensive cyber capabilities and ensuring that cybersecurity awareness and education in the workplace, schools, boardrooms, and digital supply chains is a priority (Cabinet Office, Department for Digital, Culture, Media & Sport, Home Office, Ministry of Defence, Government Communications Headquarters; Gov.uk, 2021).

Law enforcement agencies should be aware that the Queen has approved a new "Royal Charter" for the UK Cyber Security Council, which could help boost cyber jobs and align the cyber workforce with other professional fields such as teaching or engineering. The Home Secretary has stated tha t "this strategy will significantly improve the Government's response to the ever­changing threat from cybercrime and strengthen law enforcement's response in partnership with NCSC and the National Cyber Force'' (gov.uk, 2021).

Action Fraud is the UK's national fraud and cybercrime reporting centre and they are there to help, support and give advice to victims when needed. Cyber Aware, from the UK's National Cyber Security Centre also gives essential advice to victims or educators on how to stay secure and protect oneself online (Home Office, 2010).

There will be additional opportunities for criminality when more of the nation's public and private assets are maintained electronically rather than physically, frequently outside our jurisdiction. The same technologies, on the other hand, can be used to safeguard youths and adolescents as well as by law enforcement organisations to recognize, investigate, and prosecute cyber-criminals (Cyber Crime Strategy, 2010).

Chapter conclusion

To summarise, key prevention methods include updating risk assessment tools for frontline workers, updating contextual safeguarding and security measures to include life online, improving data collection and analysis within services, incorporating more individualised internet safety education for vulnerable youths, having experts and the industry work closer together to make the online world a safer place and ensuring that parents and carers are educated and well resourced. These youth online protective measures are more important than ever in today's society as more and more young people are going online. Parents, carers and educators, as well as industry, policymakers, and youngsters themselves, all play an important part in ensuring youths' awareness and safety online.

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

These research findings clearly indicate that there is a serious problem affecting vulnerable youths and adolescents as they continue to encounter threats and abuse online. Insufficient awareness of cybersecurity by young people continues to cause online victimisation. Thus, the level of intervention and support should be well informed and responsive to any possible online risks to youngsters.

The myriad of digital platforms excites youngsters into amazingly interesting applications but can lead to potentially careless and problematic use. Online platforms can lure the young to an extent that caution is, on occasion, ignored. Digital activity is also easily infiltrated by cyber criminals while youths and adolescents may be innocently engaged with their internet games and applications.

These days, the majority of young people have digital devices, ostensibly for contact with guardians and parents. However, such technology is ideal for careless communication with strangers or sharing inappropriate websites with their peers. It is natural for children to be excited by exploration and through encouragement in the playground. Young people will encourage one another to explore unfamiliar areas. They are unaware that, apparently, exciting online activity can have dire consequences. Natural vulnerability is easily exploited once cyber criminals can home in on children's thoughtless online behaviour. Rapid technological developments exploit the eagerness of children to discover the massive capabilities of those instruments. This exploration makes devices themselves vulnerable which then exposes unwary youths to online exploitation and criminal influence.

Youngsters can be skilled at social networking, social media management, App interface knowledge and implementing technology for daily problems. However, they may be inclined to thoughtlessly join phoney online clubs and forums, communicate with strangers, share images of themselves and put their personal privacy at risk.

The naivete and trusting nature of youths make them ideal targets for cyber criminals. The online world offers a new, powerful, and anonymous way for predators to find and groom minors for malicious objectives. Cyber criminals feel detached from their victims, being less concerned of discovery online. This makes deception and abuse on the internet and social media relatively easy.

The nature of cybercrime offers complicated new difficulties for victim service providers, law enforcement and police agencies. There are also immense difficulties in investigating crimes, collecting evidence, identifying child victims and their families. Victims are usually ashamed and afraid to come forward, increasing the challenge of identifying cyber criminals.

The ultimate goal of this study is to reinforce the message that increasing youth cyber awareness and building resilience to cybersecurity threats is crucial to everyday well-being and eventual economic sustainability. It is important to realise that no security system is perfect, and that keeping up with new technical advancements and preventing cybercrime against youths requires concerted collaboration from a variety of stakeholders and the community as a whole.

Internet technology is constantly changing, and the research shows that all stakeholders, family members, and educators involved in cybercrime prevention must consider developing a regular and consistent initiative of updating, educating youths, giving advice and providing a dedicated space where support systems and guidance can be found. For youths to be safer online and have a healthy digital presence, more awareness, grassroots and multi-faceted effort is required. Thus, understandable and realistic information generated through collaborative procedures within the community is vital.

Hopefully, this thesis will encourage future research and similar initiatives in order to establish a national cyber awareness network that can effectively work on a local, regional, and international level to provide training, education, and even influence government policies on the current issue of youth cyber victimisation.

5.2 Recommendations

This dissertation highlights the considerable work and research done by numerous authors. Many problem areas have been studied and analysed which lead us to focus on what needs to be implemented in order to help reduce internet abuse. Thus, the following recommendations could be considered.

Educational establishments need to bear in mind, when creating applications and courses that youths might learn more effectively through games and specifically targeted entertainment. The earlier children are exposed to thoughts of caution, the better. However, further research is required in order to ensure that the negative effect of such approaches for creating awareness about online security does not result in overwhelming caution.

As young people are born into the digital age, education systems must make teaching cybersecurity a priority. basic and sophisticated skills will be vital in an increasingly technological world. In order to ensure young people know of the online dangers and still safely reap the benefits of the digital world. Staff must receive intense training during their teacher training courses in cybersecurity as the UK education system adopts more online learning modules in schools, colleges and universities. Pastoral staff must be familiarised with the initial signs of the kind of behaviour which may be the result of cybercrime and the stigma attached to victims eradicated.

All Police forces should have a highly skilled, department designated to cybercrime which includes national and international cooperation between law enforcement agencies.

The media, including social media platforms should also frequently make the public aware of current cyber-crimes and encourage everyone to confidently report any suspicious online behaviour.

The digital companies must be held to account by the imposition of large fines, for neglecting to remove material on their platforms which contribute to the misuse of their technology. This may be reinforced by public and Governmental agreement as to the limits which may have to be imposed on freedom of speech.

Cybercrime would be reduced if the law required on every digital platform or website that a form of ID had to be linked to a profile or account online. The account holder would have to upload a video and audio version to authenticate their identity. It would also prevent underage users from registering accounts, which could protect youths from sexual exploitation and other forms of cyber victimisation.

Society in general must be alert to the problems liable to arise from virtual reality and the development of the metaverse. Both of which inevitably will contain spaces within which cyber criminals can flourish.

REFERENCE LIST

Abdulhameed R, S. (2021). 'Crimes of threats and cyber extortion through social media: A comparative study'. Review of International Geographical Education. (RIGEO), 11(12), pp. 1022-1033. Retrieved from file:///home/chronos/uf1a168613d0733de3226732008cc3fac9a83eb62/MyFiles/Downloa ds/4462.pdf

Aftab, P. (2000). 'The parent's guide to protecting your children in cyberspace'. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Alshalan, A. (2006). ' Cyber-Crime Fear and Victimization: An Analysis of a National Survey'. Mississippi State University, Mississippi.

Altheide, D.L. (2002) 'Creating Fear; News and the Construction of Crisis'. Aldine De Gruyter. New York, pp. 24.

Amplify Intelligence. (2020). 'Can malware bypass antivirus software?'. Retrieved from <https://www.amplifyintelligence.com/malware/>

Anderson, G., & Arsenault, N. (2005). ' Fundamentals of educational research'. Routledge.

Arce, D. G. (2018). 'Malware and market share'. Journal of Cybersecurity. USA: University of Texas at Dallas. 4(1). Retrieved from: <https://doi.org/10.1093/cybsec/tyy010>

Armstrong H. L., Forde, P.J. (2003). 'Internet anonymity practices in computer crime'. Information Management & Computer Security. 11, pp. 209-215.

Avery, R, Assiter, A. (2018). The Education People. 'Engaging Families in Online Safety: Guidance for Educational Settings'. Kent County Council. Retrieved from <https://www.kelsi.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/73837/Engaging-Families-in- Online-Safety.pdf>

Bada, M., Chua, Y. T., Collier, B., & Pete, I. (2021 ). 'Exploring masculinities and perceptions of gender in online cybercrime subcultures'. In Cybercrime in Context. Springer, Cham, pp. 237-257.

Bandura, A., Freeman, W. H., & Lightsey, R. (1999). 'Self-efficacy: The exercise of control'. Pp. 158-166

Bannon, S., McGlynn, T., McKenzie, K., & Quayle, E. (2015). ' The Internet and young people with Additional Support Needs (ASN): Risk and safety'. Computers in Human Behavior. 53, pp. 495- 503.

Batool, S. (2020). ' Exploring vulnerability among children and young people who experience online sexual victimisation '. Doctoral dissertation; University of Central Lancashire.

Beech, A., et al. (2008). ' The Internet and Child Sexual Offending: A Criminological Review, Aggression and Violent Behaviour'. 13, pp. 216-228.

Biswal, C.S. and Pani, S.K. (2021). ' Cyber-Crime Prevention Methodology'. In Intelligent Data Analytics for Terror Threat Prediction. eds S.K. Pani, S.K. Singh, L. Garg, R.B. Pachori and X. Zhang. Retrieved from <https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119711629.ch14>

Bottoms, A. E. and Wiles, P. (1997). 'Environmental Criminology'. in M. Maguire, R. Morgan and R. Reiner (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Criminology. Oxford: Clarendon Press

Brecht, D.(2017). INFOSEC resources. ' Phishing Attacks Targeting Young Adults'. Infosec Institute, In. Retrieved from <https://resources.infosecinstitute.com/topic/phishing- attacks-targeting-young-adults/>

Buijs, P., Boot, E., Shugar, A., Fung, W. L. A., & Bassett, A. S. (2017). ' Internet safety issues for adolescents and adults with intellectual disabilities'. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities. 30(2), pp. 416- 418.

Buono, L. (2014). ' Fighting cybercrime through prevention, outreach and awareness raising'. ERA Forum, pp. 1-8.

Byrne, J., Kardefelt-Winther, D., Livingstone, S., et al. (2016). 'Global Kids Online research synthesis, 2015-2016 '. Florence and London: UNICEF Office of Research-Innocenti and London School of Economics and Political Science, pp. 1-75. Retrieved from www.globalkidsonline.net/synthesis <http://www.globalkidsonline.net/synthesis>.

Cabinet Office. (2021). 'New Blueprint to protect UK from Cyber Threats: A new National Cyber Strategy has been announced, setting out how we will protect and promote UK interests in the rapidly evolving online world'. Gov.uk. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-blueprint-to-protect-uk-from-cyber-threats

Chadwick, D. D. (2019). ' Online risk for people with intellectual disabilities'. Tizard Learning Disability Review. 24(4), pp. 180- 187. Retrieved from <https://doi.org/10.1108/TLDR- 03-2019-0008>

Chadwick, D. D., Chapman, M., & Caton, S. (2019). 'Digital Inclusion for People with an Intellectual Disability'. In I. A. Attrill, C. Fullwood, M. Keep, & D. Kuss (Eds.). Oxford Handbook of Cyberpsychology, pp. 261- 284. Oxford University Press.

Cheng, C., Chan, L., & Chau, C. L. (2020). 'Individual differences in susceptibility to cybercrime victimization and its psychological aftermath'. Computers in Human Behavior, 108, 106311.

Children's Commissioner. (2019). ' Keeping kids safe: Improving safeguarding responses to gang violence and criminal exploitation '. Children's Commissioner for England: London. Retrieved from <https://www.childrenscommissioner.gov.uk/wp- content/uploads/2019/02/CCO-Gangs.pdf>

Chiner, E., Gomez-Puerta, M., & Villegas, E. (2020). ' Education and social work students' perceptions of Internet use by people with and without intellectual disability'. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities. 8, pp. 1- 9. Retrieved from <https://doi.org/10.1080/20473869.2020.1791680>

Choi, K. S. (2008). ' Computer crime victimization and integrated theory: An empirical assessment'. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 2(1).

Cohen, L. E., & Felson, M. (1979). 'Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach'. American Sociological Review. 44(4), pp. 588-608.

Cohen, L. E., & Felson, M. (1979). ' Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach'. American Sociological Review, 44, pp. 588-608.

CyberEdge Group. (2022). '2022 Cyberthreat Defense Report'. CyberEdge Group, LCC.

Dakduk, S., & Gonzalez, A. M. (2018). ' Analysing academic performance using systematic literature review'. SAGE Publications Ltd.

Dawda, S, Janjeva, A and Moiseienko, A. (2020). 'Rethinking the UK Response to Cyber Fraud: Key Policy Challenges'. Royal United Services Institute: for Defence and Security Studies. London; Whitehall.

Delgado, P., Avila, V., Fajardo, I., & Salmeron, L. (2019). ' Training Young Adults with Intellectual Disability to Read Critically on the Internet'. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities. 32(3), pp. 666- 677. Retrieved from <https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12562>

Department for Children, Schools and Families. (2007). ' Cyberbullying: Safe to learn: Embedding anti-bullying work in schools'. Retrieved from <http://www.kidscape.org.uk/assets/downloads/dcsfcyberbullying.pdf>

Ditton, J., Bannister, J., Gilchrist, E., & Farrall, S. (1999). 'Afraid or Angry? Recalibrating the 'Fear' of Crime'. International Review of Victimology, pp. 83-99.

Dr. Mike McGuire and Samantha Dowling. (2013). Home Office. ' Cybercrime: A review of the evidence. ' Research Report 75, at 4. Retrieved from <https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/246754/h orr75-chap3.pdf>

Duggan, M. (2017). 'Men, women experience and view online harassment differently '. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from <https://www.pewresearch.org/fact- tank/2017/07/14/men-women-experience-and-view-online-harassment-differently/>

ECPAT International. (2018). 'Trends in online child sexual abuse material'. Bangkok: ECPAT International.

ECPAT International. (2020). 'Summary Paper on Online Child Sexual Exploitation.' Bangkok: ECPAT International.

Eddolls, M. (2016). ' Making cybercrime prevention the highest priority '. Network Security, pp. 5-8.

Eddolls, M. (2016). ' Making cybercrime prevention the highest priority'. Network Security, pp. 5-8.

Education, & Agency, S. F. (2019). 'Cyber crime and cyber security: A guide for education providers'. Gov.uk. Open Government Licence v3.0. Retrieved from <https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3/>

eSafety Commissioner. (2021). 'Keeping Your Online Accounts Secure'. Australian Government. Retrieved from <https://www.esafety.gov.au/young-people/keeping-your-online- accounts-secure>

EUCPN. (2019). Toolbox Series. No. 15. 'Preventing the victimisation of minors in the digital age: awareness raising and behavioural change'. Brussels.

Ferraro K. F. (1995). 'Fear of crime: Interpreting victimization risk'. Albany: State University of New York Press, Albany.

Finkelhor, D., Mitchell, K. J. and Wolak, J. (2005). ' Online Victimization: A Report on the Nation's Youth '. Crimes Against Children Research Centre. Retrieved from www.missingkids.com <http://www.missingkids.com>

Fowler, J. (2022). '10 common scams targeted at teens '. Investopedia. Retrieved from: https://www.investopedia.com/financial-edge/1012/common-scams-targeted-at- teens.aspx

Gandhi, R., Sharma, A., Mahoney, W., Sousan, W., Zhu, Q. & Laplante, P. (2011). 'Dimensions of cyber-attacks: Social, political, economic, and cultural'. IEEE Technology & Society Magazine, 30(1), pp. 28-38.

Get Safe Online. (2017). ' Caught on the net!'. Electric Studio. Retrieved from <https://www.getsafeonline.org/personal/news-item/caught-on-the-net/>

Gooch, G., & Williams, M. (2015). 'A Dictionary of Law Enforcement'. Oxford University Press.

Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). 'A general theory of crime '. Stanford University Press.

Green S. (2007). 'Crime, victimisation and vulnerability'. In Handbook of victims and victimology, 91-118. London: Willan Publishing.

H. Vandebosch, K. Van Cleemput. (2008).' Defining cyberbullying: A qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters'. CyberPsychology & Behaviour. 11, pp. 499-503

Hart, C. (1998). 'Doing a literature review: releasing the social science research imagination'. SAGE (in association with) The Open University.

Henson, B., Reyns, B. W., & Fisher, B. S. (2011). ' Internet crime'. Key Issues in Crime and Punishment. pp 155-168. Retrieved from <http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412994118.n12>

Hindelang, M. J., Gottfredson, M. R., & Garofalo, J. (1978). 'Victims of Personal Crime: An Empirical Foundation for a Theory of Personal Victimization'. Cambridge. MA: Ballinger Publishing Company.

Home Office. (2010). 'Cyber crime Strategy'. Home Office; Secretary of State for the Home Department. Retrieved from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_ data/file/228826/7842.pdf

Home Office. (2010). 'Cyber Crime Strategy '. Secretary of State for the Home Department. The Stationery Office Limited; Gov.uk.

Hourcade, J. P. (2015 ). 'Child-computer interaction'. Self, Iowa City, Iowa.

House of Commons Home Affairs Committee. (2018). 'Policing for the Future'. Tenth Report of Session 2017-19. HC 515, pp. 32-37.

International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children. (2017). 'Online Grooming of Children for Sexual Purposes: Model Legislation & Global Review'. 1st Ed. Alexandria, Virginia: The Koons Family Institute on International Law & Policy.

Irwin, L. (2017). IT Governance Blog. ' Young people more likely to fall for phishing scam '. IT Governance. Retrieved from <https://www.itgovernance.co.uk/blog/younger-people-are- more-likely-to-fall-for-phishing-scams>

Irwin, L. (2022). ' Data breaches and cyber-attacks in 2021: 5.1 billion breached records'. IT Governance. Retrieved from <https://www.itgovernance.co.uk/blog/data-breaches-and- cyber-attacks-in-2021-5-1-billion-breached-records>

IT Governance UK. (n.d). 'Phishing attacks and how to avoid them'. IT Governance Ltd. Retrieved from <https://www.itgovernance.co.uk/phishing>

ITU Publications. (2020). 'Guidelines for parents and educators on Child Online Protection'. International Telecommunication. Union Development Sector. Switzerland, Geneva. Retrieved from file:///home/chronos/u- f1a168613d0733de3226732008cc3fac9a83eb62/MyFiles/Downloads/itu_guidelines.pdf

J. Raskauskas, A. Stoltz. (2007). ' Involvement in traditional and electronic bullying among adolescents'. Developmental Psychology. 43, pp. 564-575

J. Wolak, K.J. Mitchell, D. Finkelhor. (2007). 'Does online harassment constitute bullying? An exploration of online harassment by known peers and online-only contacts'. Journal of Adolescent Health. 41 (6), pp. 51-58

J.J. Dooley, J. Pyzalski, D. Cross. (2009). 'Cyberbullying versus face-to-face bullying: A theoretical and conceptual review'. Journal of Psychology. 217, pp. 182-188

J.J. Dooley, J. Pyzalski, D. Cross. (2009). 'Cyberbullying versus face-to-face bullying: A theoretical and conceptual review'. Journal of Psychology. 217, pp. 182-188

Jaishankar, K. (2008). 'Space Transition Theory of Cyber Crimes.' Crimes of the Internet. 283­301.

Jimerson, S. (2011). ' Handbook of School Violence and School Safety:International Research and practice. Retrieved from https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9780203841372/handbook-school- violence-school-safety-shane-jimerson-amanda-nickerson-matthew-mayer-michael- furlong

Kamkar, K. Duquette, R. (2021). 'Psychological trauma and cybercrime'. Canadian Occupational Safety. Retrieved from https://www.thesafetymag.com/ca/news/opinion/psychological-trauma-and- cybercrime/252447

Kumar, S. (2021). 'Crime Against Children in Cyber World'. Career Point University, Hamirpur, Himachal Prades. 5 (9). pp. 29-30

Lanning, K. V. (2005). 'Compliant child victims: Confronting an uncomfortable reality'. Viewing child pornography on the Internet, 4.

Langton, L., & Planty, M. (2010). ' Victims of identity theft, 2008'. Washington DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Lanzarote Committee. (2015). 'Protection of children against sexual abuse in the circle of trust: The strategies'. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. 3.

Lanzarote Committee. (2015). 'Protection of children against sexual abuse in the circle of trust'. 1st Implementation report. Council of Europe. 50

Leach, J. (2008). 'Do New Information and Communications Technologies Have a Role to Play in the Achievement of Education for All?'. British Educational Research Journal. 34 (6). 783-805. Retrieved from <http://www.jstor.org/stable/40375541>

Lenhart, A. (2007). 'Cyberbullying '. Pew Research Centre: Internet, Science &amp; Tech. Retrieved from https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2007/06/27/cyberbullying/

Leventhal, H. (1970). 'Findings and theory in the study of fear communications. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology. 5:119-186. New York: Academic Press.

Livingstone, S, Stoilova, M and Nandagiri, R. (2018). 'Children's Data and Privacy Online: Growing up in a Digital Age'. Retrieved from http://www.lse.ac.uk/media-and- communications/assets/documents/research/projects/ childrens-privacy-online/Evidence- review-final.pdf.

Livingstone, S., Davidson, J., Bryce, J., Batool, S., Haughton, C., & Nandi, A. (2017). 'Children's online activities, risks and safety: a literature review by the UKCCIS evidence group'. pp. 1

Local Government Association. (2021). 'Younger people more susceptible to being scammed'. (n.d.). London: Westminster. Retrieved from <https://www.local.gov.uk/about/news/younger-people-scammed>

Lough, E., & Fisher, M. H. (2016). 'Internet use and online safety in adults with Williams syndrome'. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 60(10). pp 1020- 1030.

Lukic, D. (2021). 'All you need to know about teen identity theft'. IDStrong. Retrieved from <https://www.idstrong.com/sentinel/why-you-should-watch-out-for-teen-identity-theft/>

Lynn, R. (2007). 'Virtual Rape is Traumatic, but is it a Crime?'. Retrieved from http://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/commentary/sexdrive/ 2007/05/sexdrive_0504

M.L. Ybarra, K.J. Mitchell, D. Finkelhor, J. Wolak. (2007). 'Internet prevention messages: targeting the right online behaviour'. Archives of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 161 (2), pp. 138-145

M.L. Ybarra, K.J. Mitchell. (2008). 'How risky are social networking sites? A comparison of places online where youth sexual solicitation and harassment occurs'. Paediatrics. 121 (2), pp. 350-357

M.O. Lwin, A.J. Stanaland, A.D. Miyazaki. (2008). 'Protecting children's privacy online: how parental mediation strategies affect website safeguard effectiveness'. Journal of Retailing, 84, pp. 205-217

Machado, T. J. X., & Gouveia, L. B. (2021). ' Covid-19 effects on cybersecurity issues'. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, pp. 8

Manasrah, A., Akour, M., & Alsukhni, E. (2015). ' Toward improving university students' awareness of spam email and cybercrime: Case study of Jordan'. First International Conference on Anti-Cybercrime. ICACC. pp. 1-6.

Marco Gercke. (2012). 'Understanding cybercrime: Phenomena, challenge and legal response'. ITU Telecommunication Development Bureau. Retrieved from <https://www.itu.int/ITU- D/cyb/cybersecurity/docs/Cybercrime%20legislation%20EV6.pdf>

Marcum, C. D., Higgins, G. E., & Ricketts, M. L. (2010). 'Potential factors of online victimization of youth: An examination of adolescent online behaviors utilizing routine activity theory'. Deviant Behaviour, 31(5), pp. 381-410.

Maria Bada; Jason R. C. Nurse. (2020). ' The Social and Psychological Impact of Cyber-Attacks'. Benson & McAlaney. Retrieved from <https://arxiv.org/pdf/1909.13256.pdf>

May-Chahal, C. et al. (2014). ' Safeguarding cyborg childhoods: Incorporating the on/offline behaviour of children into everyday social work practices'. British Journal of Social Work, 44 (3), pp. 596-614.

McAfee. (2019). 'What is malware?' McAfee, LLC. Retrieved from <https://www.mcafee.com/en-gb/antivirus/malware.html>

Melto, K. (2021). 'The Development of Technology and Commercial Child Sexual Abuse Online - A Literature Review'. Laurea University of Applied Sciences. Retrieved from <https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/499011/Thesis_Kati_Melto_Final.pdf?se quence=2>

Minei, E. & Matusitz, J. (2011). 'Cyberterrorist messages and their effects on targets: A qualitative analysis'. Journal of Human Behaviour in the Social Environment. 21(8), pp. 995-1019.

Mitchell, K. J. (2007). 'Linking youth internet and conventional problems: Findings from a clinical perspective'. Journal of Aggression. Maltreatment and Trauma. 15, pp. 39-58.

Moitra, S. D. (2005). 'Developing policies for cybercrime'. European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice. 13(3), pp. 435-464

Moore, D. A., & Healy, P. J. (2008). ' The trouble with overconfidence'. Psychological Review, 115(2), pp. 502- 517.

Morad, R. (2014). 'Why Teens are at Risk for Identity Theft'. LifeLock by norton. Retrieved from https://www.lifelock.com/learn/identity-theft-resources/teens-risk-identity- theft#:~:text=Teens%20are%20often%20targets%20for,unaware%20of%20the%20sever e%20consequences.

Nixon, C. (2014). 'Current perspectives: the impact of cyberbullying on adolescent health < https://doi.org/10.2147/AHMT.S36456 >'. Adolesc Health Med Ther. 5:143-58. Retrieved from doi:10.2147/AHMT.S36456

Normand, C. L., & Sallafranque-St-Louis, F. (2016). 'Cybervictimization of young people with an intellectual or developmental disability: Risks specific to sexual solicitation'. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities. 29(2). pp 99- 110. Retrieved from <https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12163>

NSPCC. (2018). ' How safe are our children? The most comprehensive overview of child protection in the UK'. Retrieved from <https://learning.nspcc.org.uk/media/1067/how- safe-are-our-children-2018.pdf>

Nurse, J. R. C. (2018). 'Cybercrime and You: How Criminals Attack and the Human Factors that They Seek to Exploit'. In Attrill-Smith, A., Fullwood, C. Keep, M. & Kuss, D.J. (Eds.), Oxford Handbook of Cyberpsychology. 2nd Ed. Oxford: OUP.

P.K. Smith, J. Mahdavi, M. Carvalho, S. Fisher, S. Russell, N. Tippett. (2008). 'Cyberbullying: Its nature and impact on secondary school pupils'. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 49, pp. 376-385

Patchin, J. (2002). 'Bullied youths lash out: Strain as an explanation of extreme school violence'. Caribbean Journal of Criminology and Social Psychology. 7(1-2), pp. 22-43.

Patchin, J. W. and S. Hinduja. (2006). 'Bullies Move Beyond the Schoolyard: A Preliminary Look at Cyberbullying.' Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. 4(2):148169.

Parker, H. J., & Flowerday, S. V. (2020). 'Contributing factors to increased susdddddp. 1-10.

Plichta, P. (2011). 'Ways of ICT Usage Among Mildly Intellectually Disabled Adolescents: Potential Risks and Advantages'. In Youth culture and net culture: Online social practices. pp.296-315. IGI Global.

Quayle, E. and Sinclair, R. (2012). An Introduction to the Problem. in Quayle, E. and Ribisl, K. M. 'Understanding and Preventing Online Sexual Exploitation of Children'. London: Routledge.

R. Slonje, P.K. Smith. (2008). 'Cyberbullying: Another main type of bullying? '. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. 49, pp. 147-154

R.E. Dahl. (2004). 'Adolescent brain development: a period of vulnerabilities and opportunities'. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1021, pp. 1-22

Ramsten, C., Martin, L., Dag, M., & Marmatâl Hammar, L. (2019) . A Balance of Social Inclusion and Risks: Staff Perceptions of Information and Communication Technology in the Daily Life of Young Adults with Mild to Moderate Intellectual Disability in a Social Care Setting'. Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities. Advance Online Publication. Retrieved from <https://doi.org/10.1111/jppi.12278>

Riek M., Bohme R., & Moore T. (2016). 'Measuring the influence ofperceived cybercrime risk on online service avoidance'. IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing. 13(2), pp. 261-273.

Roberts, L. D., Indermaur, D., & Spiranovic, C. (2012). 'Fear of Cyber-Identity Theft and

Related Fraudulent Activity'. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, pp. 315-328.

Saunders, K. M., & Zucker, B. (2010). ' Counteracting identity fraud in the information age: The Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act'. International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, 13(2), pp. 183-192.

Sengupta, A, Anoshua, C. (2011). 'Are social networking sites a source of online harassment for teens? '. Evidence from survey data. Children and Youth Services Review. 33(2), pp. 284­290. Retrieved from <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.09.011>

Shea, V. (1994). 'Netiquette '. San Rafael, CA: Albion Books. Retrieved from <http://www.albion.com/netiquette/index.html>

Shea, V. (1994). 'Netiquette'. San Rafael, CA: Albion Books. Retrieved from http://www.albion.com/netiquette/index.html

Sheng, S., Holbrook, M., Kumaraguru, P., Cranor, L.F. & Downs, J. (2010). ' Who falls for phish? A demographic analysis of phishing susceptibility and effectiveness of interventions'. in Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, AMC, Atlanta, GA, pp. 373-382.

Shpigelman, C.N. and Gill, C.J. (2014). 'How do adults with intellectual disabilities use Facebook? '. Disability and Society. Vol. 29 No.10, pp.1601-1616.

Shiner, M. (1999). ' Defining peer education. Journal of Adolescence'. 22, pp. 555- 566.

Skinner, W. F., & Fream, A. M. (1997). ' A social learning theory analysis of computer crime among college students'. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 34(4), pp. 495­518.

Stakic, S., Zielony, R., Bodiroza, A., Kimzeke, G. (2003). 'Peer education within a frame of theories and models of behaviour change'. The European Magazine for Sexual and Reproductive Health. 56, pp. 4-7.

Steinberg, L. (2007). 'Risk taking in adolescence: New perspectives from brain and behavioural science'. Current directions in psychological science, 16(2), pp. 55-59.

Steijn, W.M.P. and Vedder, A. (2015). ' Privacy under construction: a developmental perspective on privacy perception'. Science Technology & Human Values. 40(4), pp. 615-37.

Steijn, W.M.P., Schouten, A.P. and Vedder, A.H. (2016). 'Why concern regarding privacy differs: The influence of age and (non-)participation on Facebook '. Cyberpsychology­Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace. 10(1), pp. 1-12.

Stripe, N. (2021). 'Children 's online behaviour in England and Wales'. Office for National Statistics. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/childr ensonlinebehaviourinenglandandwales/yearendingmarch2020

Suvi M. Virtanen. (2017). 'Fear of Cybercrime in Europe: Examining the Effects of Victimization and Vulnerabilities'. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law. National Centre for Biotechnology information; U.S. National Library of Medicine. 24(3), pp. 323-338

Swivel Secure. (2019). 'Why Cybersecurity needs to be a Priority for the Education Sector'.

Retrieved form <https://swivelsecure.com/solutions/education/why-cybersecurity-needs- to-be-a-priority-for-the-education-sector/>

Tang, F., Hess, T. J., Valacich, J. S., & Sweeney, J. T. (2014). 'The effects of visualization and interactivity on calibration in financial decision-making'. Behavioral Research in Accounting, 26(1), pp. 25-58.

The Home Secretary commissioned Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services; HMICFRS. (2019). 'Cyber: Keep the light on; An inspection of the police response to cyber-dependent crime'. JusticeInspectorates.gov.uk.

Turner, G., & Shepherd, J. (1999). 'A method in search of a theory: peer education and health promotion'. Health Education Research, 14(2), pp. 235- 247.

Umawing, J. (2018). 'Engaging students in cybersecurity: A primer for educators'. Malwarebytes. Retrieved from https://blog.malwarebytes.com/101/2018/05/engaging- students-cybersecurity-primer-educators/

UNICEF Office of Research- Innocenti. (2019). ' Global kids online'. Comparative report. UNICEF Office of Research, Innocenti: Florence, Italy.

UNICEF. (2018). 'Children's online privacy and freedom of expression: Industry toolkit'. New York: UNICEF.

Vallarelli, N. (2020). ' Cyber Security's Influence on Modern Society'. Honors College Theses, pp. 284 .

V.F. Reyna, F. Farley. (2006). 'Risk and rationality in adolescent decision making'. Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 7, pp. 1-44

Wall, D.S. (2005). 'The Internet as a Conduit for Criminals '. in Pattavina, A. (ed) Information Technology and the Criminal Justice System. Thousand Oaks. CA: Sage, pp. 77-98

Wang, B., Liu, Y., & Parker, S. K. (2020). 'How does the use of information communication technology affect individuals?'. A work design perspective. Academy of Management Annals. 14 (2), pp. 695-725.

Wang, J., Li, Y., & Rao, H. R. (2016). 'Overconfidence in phishing email detection'. Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 17(11), pp 1.

Witte, K. (1994). ' Fear control and danger control: A test of the Extended Parallel Process Model'. (EPPM). Communication Monographs, 61, pp. 113-134.

Wolak, J., & Finkelhor, D. (2013 ). 'Are crimes by online predators different from crimes by sex offenders who know youth in-person?'. Journal of Adolescent Health. 53 (6), pp. 736-741.

Wright M. F. (2014a). 'Cyber victimisation and perceived stress: Linkages to late adolescents' cyber aggression and psychological functioning'. Youth & Society.

Wright, M. F. (2018). 'Youths and cyberbullying: Description, theories, and recommendations'. In V. C. Bryan, A. T. Musgrove, & J. R. Powers (Eds.), Handbook of research on human development in the digital age. IGI Publishing/IGI Global, pp. 364-384. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-2838-8.ch016 <https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.4018/978-1-5225-2838-8.ch016>

Wynne, T. (2008). 'An Investigation into the Fear of Crime: Is there a Link between the Fear of Crime and the Likelihood of Victimisation?’. Internet Journal of Criminology, pp. 1-29.

Xie, W.J. and Kang, C.Y. (2015). 'See you, see me: teenagers' self-disclosure and regret of posting on social network sites'. Computers in Human Behaviour. 52, pp. 398-407.

Yar, M. (2005). ' The Novelty of 'Cybercrime' An Assessment in Light of Routine Activity Theory'. European Journal of Criminology. 2(4), pp. 407-427.

Yar, M. (2006). 'Cybercrime and Society'. SAGE Publications.

Ybarra, M. & Mitchell, K. (2004). 'Online aggressor/targets, aggressors, and targets: A comparison of associated youth characteristics ’. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(7), pp. 1308-1316.

[...]

• Universidad: University of Portsmouth (Research)
• Curso: Criminology and Sociology
• Calificación: 2:1
• Autor: Keira Sarssam (Autor)
• Año de publicación: 2022
• Páginas: 73
• No. de catálogo: V1345962
• ISBN (PDF): 9783346850904
• ISBN (Libro): 9783346850911
• Idioma: Inglés
• Etiqueta: Cybercrime, Criminology, sociology, crime, youths, victimisation, sexual exploitation, cyber, cyber world, digital, dangers, risks, adolecents, victims, cyber bullying, identity thft, malicious, anonymous, law enforcements, effects, prevention, online, social media, young, children, financial fraud, malware, attack, victim, data breaching, extortion, vunerable, vunerability, wellbeing, fear, awareness, educators, education, law enforcement, parents, routine activity theory, disability, self efficiency theory, predator, criminal