Substance Abuse Among Ethiopian Adolescents. A Qualitative Social Study

Masterarbeit , 2019 , 91 Seiten

Psychologie - Sozialpsychologie

This paper discusses a social psychological study, which was conducted among adolescents in Amba Town, Ethiopia, regarding their substance abuse habits. It first gives a general overview of substance abuse concepts and explains the classifications of the drugs and substances mentioned in the study. The author proceeds to explain the different factors that were vital in creating the questionnaire, such as socio-demographic and psychological aspects and other influences, such as the accessibility and affordability factors, and that of group dynamics. The paper then goes on to present the findings of the study and analyzes them, mainly focussing on the physical, mental, and social aspects and consequences.

The author of this text is not a native English speaker. Please excuse any grammatical errors and other inconsistencies.

Table of contents

Contents page

Acknowledgment

Abbreviation

Glossary

Table of contents

List of tables

List of figures

Abstract

CHAPTER ONE
1 Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Statement of the Problem
1.3 Basic Research Questions
1.4 Objective of the study
1.4.1 General Obj ective
1.4.2 Specific Objectives
1.5 Significance of the Study
1.6 Scopes of the Study
1.7 Operational Definition
1.8 Limitation of the study
1.9 Organization of the Study
1.10 Conceptual Framework

CHAPTER TWO
2. Literature Review
2.1 General Overviews of Substance Abuse Concepts
2.2 Classifications of Drugs
2.2.1 Narcotic Drugs/ painkillers:
2.2.2 Depressants/ downers:
2.2.3 Stimulants/ uppers:
2.2.4 Hallucinogens/ mindbenders:
2.2.5 Inhalants:
2.3 Prevalence of Drug Abuse Global and Ethiopia Overview
2.4 Theoretical Background of substance /Drug Abuse
2.4.1 Sociological Theories
2.4.2 Social Learning Theory
2.4.3 Symbolic Interactions
2.4.4 The Psychological Theories
2.4.5 Structural-Functionalist Perspective
2.5 Antecedent of Substance use or Factors Influencing Substance Abuse
2.5.1 Substance Use Behavior and Social Factors
2.5.2 Family Background and Soc o-economic status
2.5.3 Substance Use Behavior and Socio-Demographic Factors
2.5.3.1 Age
2.5.4 Sex
2.5.5 Psychological Factors
2.5.6 Peer Influence
2.5.7 Mass Media and Advertising Industry
2.5.8 Accessibility and Affordability
2.5.9 Traumatic Life Events
2.5.10 Knowledge of substance Abuse
2.5.11 Cultural and Contextual Considerations of substance Abuse
2.5.12 Religious Influences of Substance Abuse
2.5.13 Cultural Influences of Substance Abuse
2.6 Major Consequences of Alcohol and Drug Abuse
2.6.1 Activity or role Engagement
2.6.2 Physical Health Consequences
2.6.3 Mental Health Consequeces
2.6.4 Social and Economic Consequences
2.7 Substance use and commonly used substances
2.8 Common and Unique Features of Substance Abuse

CHAPTER THREE

3. Research Methodology
Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Description of the Study Area
3.2.1 Study area
3.2.2 Source of Data and Study Population
3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique
3.3.1 Sample Size Determination
3.3.2 Sampling Technique
3.4. Sampling Method for Qualitative Data Collection
3.6 Study Variables
3.7 Data Collection Tools
3.7.1 Questionnaires:
3.7.2 In - depth Interview
3.8 Pilot Test
3.9 Procedures of Data Collection
3.10 Methods of data analysis
3.11 Ethical consideration

4 Chapter Four
Results
Introduction
4.1 Demographic Information respondent
4.2 Reasons to start substance uses
4.3 Consequences or risks factor encountered by substance abuse of adolescents

CHAPTER FIVE
5. DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION OF STUDY
5.1 Discussions
5.2 Conclusion of the study
5.3 Recommendations

Reference

Apennedex 1

Appendix2

Acknowledgment

First of all thank to the Almighty GOD for giving me the patience to start and finalize this work Secondly I would like to express my sincere and deepest thanks to my advisor and my co­advisor for their continuous guidance, constructive comment useful suggestion they have give me beginning from the preparation of research up to the completion of these study. If they had not been for their help and guidance, would not been achieved the current status

I am deeply indebted to my wife, my child and my brother for their encouragement moral and financially encouregment and all friend and relative who strongly encouraged me to pursue my education and complete my study successfully. It also extends my deepest thanks to adolescents substance abuse live West Shoa Zone Nono Woreda for questionnaires filling, interview and collaboration their idea to make this study successful.

Finally, my appreciations extend to Nono Woreda Adminstration office for their affection and encouragement they showed me while I am attending my education.

Abbreviation

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Glossary

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

List of tables

Table 1: Socio-Demographic Variables of the study participant

Table 2: Family background of respondent

Table 3: Family member abuse substance, such as khat, alcohol, tobacco and other

Table 4: Respondent substances abuse information

Table 5: Extent use of substances among adolescent (n=295)

Table 6: Adolescents places used to take, source of money, and availability of substance where adolescent lives

Table 7: Analysis of major consequences of substance abuse among adolescent in West Shoa Zone Nono Woreda (n=293), Oromia, August, 2019

Table 8 Substance Abuse of participants and parental living condition

Table 9 Parent child relationship and duration of substance abuse

Table 11: Multivariate regression

List of figures

Figure 1. Conceptual frame work of the study (developed by researcher, 2019)

Figure 2 Map of the study area. Taken from woreda, earth and envaromental protection office ..

Figure 3: Reasons to start substances to use among west Shoa Zone Nono woreda adolescent (n=293), Oromia, August, 2019..

Figure 4: Respondents decide to quit substances to use among west Shoa Zone Nono woreda adolescent (n=293), Oromia , August, 2019

Figure 5: Reasons to continue substances abuse among west Shoa Zone Nono woreda adolescents (n=293), Oromia , August, 2019

Fig. 6 : The perception of adolescent to substances use in west Shoa Zone Nono woreda (n=293), Oromia , August, 2019

Abstract

The main purpose of this study was to assess the substance abuse among adolescent and to examine the antecedents, consequences and intention to quit among adolescent in west Shoa Nono woreda. The Study design was community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 295 purposively and randomly selected adolescent from towns in West Shoa Zone Nono Worede. Quantitative and qualitative research approcha was deployed to gather and analyze data.Data collection tools of the study were questionnaire and in-depth Interview. The results were analyzed by using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics (chi- square and multivariate regression analyses).

The results of the study revealed that the most commonly abused substances are: 81.2% chewing khat, 73% consumption of alcohol, and 47% smoking of shisha, and 15% smoke cigarettes. Alongside, the study indicated, most of the adolescents' abuse more than one substance at the same time. Khat and alcohol were the highly abused substances by the adolescent.There was no statistically significant association between gender, adolescent place of origin, and substance use, level of significance at P>0.05.The finding shows male adolescent exposed to the problem than that of the female adolescent. A statistically significant association was found in socio demographic variables such as family parenting style and the reason adolescent continue substance abuse at P<0.05 level. Beside, peer pressure 61.4%, availability of substance 43.7%, media influence 29% and lack of employment has been found playing a profound influence for substance abusing behavior. The main consequence of substance abuse responded by the adolescent was encountering role engagement, physical, financial, psychological, social and behavioral problems. From this finding, it is possible to conclude that, substance abuse is a critical problem among adolescents; however their intention to stop is high. But there are different factors that accounted for adolescenst continue substance abuse, sever health problem and reason to continue and initiation to quit is statistically significant factors. Based on the findings of the study, recommendation was made; for family, government and no-government organization and religious leader.

Key word, Substance Abuse, Antecedent, Counscequence, Intention to Quit

CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction

This chapter of the study focused on background of the study, problem statement, objective of the study, research question, significance of the study, scope of the study, and organization of the study.

1.1 Background of the Study

Substance abuse is a very huge problem in the world today and it is ruining the lives of many millions of people both in adolescent and universal population. The use of illegal drugs and social drug has spread at a high rate and has penetrated every part of the world (WHO). No nation has been secure from the devastating problem caused by social drugs or substance abuse (Lemis, 2008).

According to different scholars the development of substance abuse has increased at an alarming rate in the past fifty years. Substance are becoming a crucial part for modern society (Parrott, 2004).Nowadays, the use of legal and illegal drugs, particularly in adolescents for non-medical purposes is dramatically increasing and it has become a public concern (WHO, 2002).

Globally, there were about 190 million substance abusers (DACA, 2005). Out of these substance abusers, around 40 million serious illnesses or injuries were identified each year. The tendency is increasing as period goes (Kidan, 2011). Use of cannabis, or marijuana is increasingly widespread throughout the world: in both developed and developing countries, intentional inhalation of volatile solvent and other inhalants is an increasing problem especially in marginalized groups as street children and indigenous adolescent people (Mahedar, 2014).

Substance abuse has been a growing problem in Sub-Saharan countries in general specifically in Ethiopian. It is well known that substance abuse among Ethiopian adolescents is considerably increasing (Meserat, 2017). Of the young segment of the Ethiopian population, college and university adolescents and youth are at the highest risk of substance abuse (Kebede, 2002).

Substance abuse is a growing problem in Ethiopia, Ethiopia is the second most populous Sub­Saharan African country with an estimated population of over 109 million (World Health Organization, April, 2019), the majority of whom (85%) reside in the rural countryside and large number of these population are adolescents (Fekedu, et.al 2007). As one of the ancient nations of Africa, Ethiopia has a rich cultural heritage and is thought to be one of the earliest centers producing alcohol. Ethiopia is also credited with being the original source of coffee and khat.

There have been limited current study conducted at the national level in Ethiopia on the extent, trend and pattern of community based through the existence of the problem is a hard fact. According to the Rapid Assessment Study Conducted in 1995 in 25 selected urban areas on 3200 respondents and other recent studies, cannabis, khat, tobacco and inhalants are abused by a significant portion of all segments of the population (DACAE, 2005).

Some studies have indicated that substance misuse is associated with psychological distress, suicide attempts functional impairment, physical ill health and risk taking behavior (Maheder.2014). Khat (an evergreen plant) and alcohol are among those substances widely consumed among the youth and adolescence of Ethiopia (Tesfahun, Gebeyaw& Girmay, 2013).

The various consequences of substance abuse are so over whelming and very shameful to the extent that both the national and international organizations all over the world are also worried about the spread of this scourge among adolescents and some of these consequences includes: mental disorder, lack of role engagement, cultism, social violence, internet frauds, gang formation, social miscreants, lawlessness among youths, lack of respect for elders, rape, instant death and wasting of precious and innocent lives and many more and loss of senses (Kidan, 2011).

Adolescence is a period of rapid physical and psychological development. It has also been described as a stage of increased curiosity, experimentation and the quest for personal identity WHO, (1997).

Substance abuse by adolescents is an enduring public health issue worldwide, including Ethiopian. The Global Status Report by the WHO points out that many children experiment with alcohol before the age of 15 years and the WHO therefore encourages member states to put into practice effective strategies to delay the onset of alcohol use (World Health Organization, 2004c).

The prevalence of substance abuse varies from country to country. Regular updates on substance abuse and its cause and consequences could therefore hold significant input regarding appropriate and dynamic interventions towards reduction of substance abuse among adolescents. Therefore the aim of this study is to assess the substance abuse among adolescents, its consequences, antecedents and intention to quit of adolescents in West Shoa Zone Nono Woreda and finding significance input regarding appropriate interventions towards reduction of substance abuse among adolescents.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

A substance abuse is an international problem, especially in developing countries and it is a major public health, social, financial and individual problem. It is a serious problem by itself and by far it is also an aggravating factor for economic crises and hence contributing for poor development and playing a significant role for our poverty.

Adolescents and youngsters are mostly at greater risk for this problem. Alcohol and other related problems are becoming more and more a public health concern. This abuse is believed to be associated with increasing amounts consumed, frequency of use and groups involved. This gives evidence that the people mostly affected are the young who can contribute effectively to the economic development of the country. Increasing youth involvement in substance abuse is a major threat to national development, family stability and social security (Adamu, 2018).

Substance abuse is a matter of great concern to educational stakeholders, medical practitioners, sociologists, religious leaders, counselors and parents. It is a national and international sensitive challenge that needs urgent attention due to the alarming rate of involvement of the youth (Abdu- Raheem, 2013).

Globally, it was estimated that a total of 246 million people, or 1 out of 20 people between the ages of 15 and 64 years, had used an illicit drug in 2013. The magnitude of the world drug problem becomes more apparent when considering that more than 1 out of 10 drug users is suffering from drug use disorders or drug dependence (Yasin. 2014).

Studies over the past two decades have tried to determine the origins and pathways of social drug abuse and addiction how the problem starts and how it progresses. Many factors have been identified that help differentiate those more likely to abuse drugs from those less vulnerable to drug abuse. Factors associated with greater potential for drug abuse are called “risk” factors (Oshodi, Aina, & Onajole, 2010).

The world drug problem is intertwined with all aspects of sustainable development. The analysis of the drug problem and the response there to, through the lens of the Sustainable Development goals reveals the mechanisms of this interaction. All areas of sustainable development, as identified in the 17 Sustainable Development Goals, shape the nature and dynamic of the drug problem. At the same time, the impact of the drug problem and the response thereto, on development can be observed at the individual, community and national levels (UNODC, 2008).

It has been observed that substance abuse is a common phenomenon among in Nigeria. It has also been noted that parents, peer groups, and society at large contribute to the alarming rate of drug abuse (Abdu-Raheem, 2013).

Alcohol/ethanol is classed as depressant because it produces sedation and sleep. However, the initial effects of alcohol particularly at low doses are often perceived as stimulation. The effects of alcohol include preoccupation with alcohol, anxiety, self-deception (denial), guilt, loss and impairment of memory and depression. The alcohol withdrawal symptoms include alcohol craving, tremor, irritability, nausea, sleep disturbance, vomiting (Assefa, 2015). Alcohol as a powerful depressant of brain activities and its stimulant effects are more apparent than real which result from decrease of control by higher centers in the brain. Control over social inhibitions, motor coordination's, speed and vision and walking state is progressively lost as greater amount of alcohol are consumed (Manaye, 2011). One cannot ignore the fact that alcohol is creating big problems because it is disruptive to personal, social, and economic wellbeing. Consumption of alcohol beverages among younger people are becoming a common practice (Assefa, 2015).

Khat (Catha edulis) is commonly chewed for its psycho stimulant and euphoric effects in Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. The most khat chewer initiated by peer pressure followed by academic purpose and ceremony of khat (Mekuria, 2014). Continued use of khat over a number of years may lead to personality disorders and to an impairment of mental health. Other unwanted effects associated with khat are dependence, sleeplessness, nervousness, nightmares and impotence.The khat users believe that he or she thinks more clearly and quickly and more alert, though concentration and judgment are objectively impaired (DACA, 2005), Khat has been used for many years in Ethiopia; particularly, in the eastern part of the country. Its uses have now spread to the neighboring nations, as people discover the exhilarating properties of this vague. In Ethiopia, it is cultivated both for export and local consumptions. Despite its widespread use, no systematic information is available on the pattern of its use because of its economic importance. However, the side effects of khat intake are being increasingly reported by medical professionals in East Africa including Ethiopia. Among adolescent, Khat is used as a source of strength, energy, and means of relaxation and removal of tension during stressful period and in the process of studying.Khat chewing houses are everywhere and attract all segments of the population, especially the youth (Manaye, 2011).

Cigarette smoking is commonly observed behaviors among adolescent. Most smokers begin smoking during childhood and adolescence. The use of Cigarettes is the most widely practiced habit in the world today. Nicotine in tobacco is the best candidate that is most capable of producing central or nervous system mediated behavioral effects (Manaye, 2011).Tobacco smoke contains noxious and cancer-producing ingredients. A long-term effect of tobacco is dependence (due to the substance nicotine it has) and other health ill effects such as bronchitis and coronary heart disease (University of Gondar, 2005). Despite this, many people continue to smoke because attempting to stop smoking involves enduring severe withdrawal symptoms. These symptoms include restlessness, dysphonic or depressed mood, and difficulty concentrating (Assefa, 2015).

The adolescent in general and students in particular are getting used to these substances (DACA, 2005).

The use of alcohol during the teenage and adolescents years is becoming a common phenomenon in many societies. Khat, which was some years back limited to some cultures and religions, is currently spreading throughout the country at an alarming rate and abused especially by youth irrespective of culture, education and religion. It is consumed everywhere by people and the prevalence of its consumption has been increasing rapidly over the last few years. On this particular age, adolescents become probing to try so many new things. The initial factor that seems to influence adolescent's experimentation with social drug use seems to be curiosity (Mahder, 2014).

Realizing the fact that substance impose huge health, economic and social problems to individual users, families, the community and the nation as a whole, the Ethiopian government has ratified international conventions to control drug abuse and has also established organizational structures such as the Ethiopian Drug Administration and Control Authority, the Illicit drug control units in the Federal and Regional police commissions, drug treatment centers to deal with drug issues.

The economic, social and cultural transition that our country is experiencing has created aground for increased and socially disruptive use of alcohol and other drug. Increasing youth involvement in substance use and abuse is a major threat to national development, family stability and social security. The social, cultural and economic growth of a given society is greatly determined by the degree of intellectual development of its young generation. It is the young generation who is responsible to eradicate poverty and to enable people to lead a better and healthier life. Since young generation is the foundation of political, economic, technical and social development, maintaining their education is a supporting factor. They need to be well cared and protected in order to sustain their maximum contribution to the future sustainable development of the country. Despite the great responsibilities of adolescents, there are serious problems that throw their life at a danger (Adamu, 2018).

Studies on substance abuse, antecedents, consequences and intention to quite, community based among adolescents in Ethiopia are limited. Although there was some researcher who conduct studies relating to substances abuse in Ethiopia (Chaltu, Dinka and Ginenus. 2018, Abera. 2018, Gemechis, Atinafu, Bedasa and Dagne, 2017 and Sisay, 2014) none of them were directly tried to assess the antecedents, consequences and intention to quit. Similarly, previous researcher (kidan, 2011) were conducted on substance abuse and intention to stop in organizational based research, but not focused on cause and antecedents' of substance abuse on community based research. Coming to study area no adequate published researches work is available in relation to substance abuse antecedents, consequences and intention to quit. Taking this research gap the study was therefore the researcher designed to fill the gap by empirically examining substance abuse, its antecedents, consequences and intention to quit.

As far as the knowledge of the researcher, there is other research gap on this area particularly in Nono Woreda is one of the remote area in West shoa zone and the population this woreda socialized to substance abuse (chew khat) from Harar people.

Therefore, to assess substance abuse behavior, the reasons for substance abuse and consequences are crucial. Thus, the purpose of this study to assess and describe substance abuse practices, its Antecedents and consequences and intention to stop among adolescent in Nono Woreda specifically Silk amba and Dire Godo town.

1.3 Basic Research Questions

1. What are the major types of Substance abused by adolescents in Nono woreda?
2. What are the factors lead adolescents to engage in Substance abusing?
3. Do substance abuser adolescents' have willingness to quit substances abuse?
4. What are the different risk factors encountered by substance abuse on adolescents?
5. Is there any association of adolescents substances abuse and socio demographic variable (religious afflation, gander, age, parental living condition)?
6. What are predictive variable of intention to quit substance abuse of Adolescent?

1.4 Objective of the study

1.4.1 General Objective

The general objective of this study is to identify substance abuse among adolescents, its antecedents, consequences and intention to quit of substance abusing adolescent Nono Woreda Silk Amba and Dire Godo town.

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

- To find out the major types of substances abused by adolescents
- To identify the factors lead adolescents to engage in substance abuse.
- To assess willingness of adolescents to stop substance abuse.
- To assess different risk factors encountered by substance abuse on adolescents.
- To assess the association between demographic characteristics ‘and adolescent substance abuse.
- To identify the predictive variable for adolescent intention to quit substance abuse.

1.5 Significance of the Study

Substance abuse needs the attention of health workers, parents, religious leaders and the community at large because it is significant issue in the social, educational, health, and other related sectors affecting the youth/ adolescents. Due to this, the study is to assess substance abuse and contributing factors as well as the associated problems and intention to quite substance abuse. Since the most vulnerable group of the society is the adolescents, it has given due consideration to carry out the study and based on the findings attained, important suggestions was made against substance issues. It was hoped that the findings of this study was assist youth office, Administrators, parents and other concerned bodies to come up with appropriate intervention strategies, that was help to control the substance problem among adolescents in West Shoa Zone Nono Woreda, Silk amba and Dire Godoo particular and elsewhere in general. It is also useful in contributing to the general body of knowledge in this area. The study has a firm belief that the result of this study might help to create awareness among administration authorities on what motivated the adolescents to substance abuse, the extent to which the adolescent in Nono Woreda are engaged in and to take relevant action. An evidenced based intervention programmed directed at empowering the adolescent to stay away from substances cannot be effectively designed, without any baseline data providing evidence on the existing problem and the extent to which the adolescent are falling victims to substance abuse. It is expected that the information generated was serve to inform all agencies interested in addressing substance abuse problems among adolescent and its effects on society.

In addition to this, the study result was provide points for policy makers, youth administration office, health workers, parents and other decision makers on the prevalence of the problem faced by substance abusers and try to address the need for adopting a better intervention and plans to tackle the problem.

1.6 Scopes of the Study

The main focus of this study is to examine substance abuse among adolescents, its antecedents, consequences, and intention to quit in west Shoa zone, Nono Woreda with special area named Silk Amba and Dire Godo town.

The data for this study was obtained from adolescents of substance abuser in Nono Woreda. The Study was delimited in the sampling frame which focuses on adolescents those who are substance abused. The researcher purposely and randomly selects this study group with approximately age range 15 - 29 years and with substance abuse problem.

1.7 Operational Definition

- Abuse: subjective experience of discomfort when the substance is stopped.
- Adolescent: In this study, the word adolescent is used interchangeably with youth. They refer to adolescents between the age of 15- 29 who are currently live in West Shoa Zone Nono Woreda.
- Intention to quit: to have something (to stop Substances use) in mind as a plan.
- Peers /Peer pressure: are group of adolescents of the same age, status or interests which refers to an inclination to conform to the standard of adolescents of the same status and age rank.
- Substance: refers to an item that alters or affects the mental, physical and emotional functioning of a person. These include alcohol, khat, cigarettes, hashish, shisha and cannabis that can be taken through chewing, inhaling, smoking, drinking.
- Antecedent: refers what is reason push to take or start substance abuse
- Consequence: refers that the result of substance abuse among adolescent, it may be psychological, physical, financial, behavioral and social problem.

1.8 Limitation of the study.

Even though there were important contributions from this finding, there were certain limitations. It is difficult to cover all substance abuse of adolescent over all due to scarcity of budget. Since the study was conducted only Nono woreda it might difficulty to generalize the finding of this study to the other area of the adolescent substance abuse.

In addition lack similar study with community based cross sectional adolescent substance abuse conducted in Ethiopian context which examined substance abuse, antecedent, consequence and intention to quit of adolescent to compare and contrast the result has its owns limitation.

1.9 Organization of the Study

This thesis has five chapters. The first chapter deals with the introductory part, which compromises the background, statements of the problems, objective of the study, research question, significances of the study, and scope of the study. The second chapter deals with the review of literature and the third chapter focuses on the methodology of the study. This chapter briefly discusses description of the study area, sampling technique, methods and procedures followed in data collection, data analysis procedure and model used, the fourth chapter illustrates result of the study, and the fifth chapter depicts discussion, conclusion and recommendation and references are included.

1.10 Conceptual Framework

Conceptual framework showing the substances abuse, antecedents consequences and intention to quit among adolescent in Nono Woreda

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Figure 1. Conceptual frame work of the study (developed by researcher, 2019)

CHAPTER TWO

2. Literature Review

This chapter presents basic concepts and relevant research works that had been conducted on the study topic. The chapter begins with defining terms and proceeds highlighting the general overviews of substance abuse concepts, theories, approaches and empirical studies related works done by different scholars about substance abuse and it risk factors issues was assessed and discussed with references of different perspectives.

2.1 General Over Views of the Substance Abuse Concepts

Drug is defined by different authors in different ways. Broadly writing, a drug is any substance that, when absorbed into the body of a living organism, alters normal bodily function. It changes mood, perception or consciousness. In common usage, the term often refers to especially to psychoactive drugs, and often, even more specifically, to illicit drugs (Heroin, cocaine, cannabis). However, caffeine, tobacco, alcohol, and other substances in common non-medical use are also drugs (UNDCP, 1992).The use of drugs/ substances is a result of the interactions between the individual, the substance and the environment. Young people especially have particular characteristics that make them vulnerable to substance use.

Drug abuse refers the use of a substance in a manner, amounts or situations such that the drug use causes problems or greatly increases the chances of problems occurrence. The problems may be social, behavioral, psychological or physical. In Ethiopia, drugs such as khat, alcohol, tobacco and to some extent other drugs like marijuana are used at young age group of the population. Drug use increases the chance of having many problems at early age such as risky sexual practices that, endanger that are the future hope of the country and this will alienate the youth from their education (Knight. Roberts, Gabrielli, and Hook 2004).

2.2 Classifications of Drugs/substances

2.2.1 Narcotic Drugs/ Painkillers:

these are chemical agents that include stupor, coma, or insensibility to pain. The term usually refers to opiates or opioids, which are called narcotic analgesics. These include morphine, heroin, cocaine, cannabis, etc. These drugs are internationally controlled by the single convention on narcotic drugs (United Nations department of public information). The consumption of such drugs as cocaine and heroin is relatively rare and its use is probably confined to limited circle of persons who can afford the cost of the habits (Seyoum and Ayalew, 1995 as cited in Assefa, 2015).

2.2.2 Depressants/ Downers:

Any chemical agent that suppresses, inhibits, or decreases some aspect of the Central Nervous System. These are benzodiazepines, alcohol, and barbiturates. These drugs are controlled by the 1971 convention on psychotropic substances (United Nations department of public information).

2.2.3 Stimulants/ Uppers:

it refers to any agent that activates, enhances, or increases neural activity, also called psycho stimulant. Included are the amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine and nicotine. (ibid). Khat is one of the stimulant drugs. It is widely used in east Africa and the Arabian Peninsula for its euphoric effect. The use is deeply rooted in the regional customs and traditions. College and university students consume khat to get mental alertness and to work hard in their academic endeavors (Yigzaw, et al., 2005 as cited in Assefa, 2015).

2.2.4 Hallucinogens/ Mindbenders:

a chemical agent that induces alterations in perception, thinking, and feeling. These drugs (LSD, PCP, MDMA, Cannabis, etc.) produce euphoria, anxiety, sensory distortion, vivid visual and auditory hallucinations, and change in behavior, delusions, paranoid reactions, depression and sense of identity loss. Psychological dependence on hallucinogens varies, but a high degree of tolerance with in short period of use. No physical dependence is involved but flashbacks of extreme anxiety have been known to occur weeks and even months after use of such drugs (UNDCP, 1992).

2.2.5 Inhalants:

inhalants are a diverse group of chemicals which produce psychoactive (mind altering) vapors; they include a number of such common products as aerosols, gasoline, some glues, solvents and butyl nitrites marked as "Room odorizes". Sniffing moderate amount ofinhalants for even a relatively short time can disturb vision, impair judgment and reduce muscle and reflex control (United Nations department of public information).

In many developing countries, including Ethiopia, drug abuse among adolescent is crucial problem. Around the Globe, there are an estimated 3.1 % the world population or 4.3% of the population aged 15 and above abuse substances (Kidan, 2011). While the majority of illegal drugs are consumed in industrialized nations, drug addiction is no longer the rich nation's problem or the poor nation's affliction; it crosses nation, ethnic, religious class and gender lines. Addicts range from the homeless to white-collar professionals, college students, sex workers, rural farmers and street children (DACA, 2005).

Results from the 2008 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings revealed that current abuse of drugs were higher for young adults aged 18 to 25 (19.6%) than for youths aged 12 to 17 (9.3 percent) and adults aged 26 or older (5.9 %). Among young adults who were current users of marijuana16.5%, nonmedical prescription-type drugs 5.9%, hallucinogens 1.7 % and cocaine 1.5 %. (NSDUH, 2009).

The European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs (ESP AD) has revealed that pupils who are 15-16 years old in the UK are reported to abuse drugs more than young people in any other European country. The results showed that UK pupils (15-16 years old) consistently are found to have higher levels of lifetime use of any illegal drug than other young Europeans (36%vs 16%). The most popular drug was cannabis (35% in lifetime; 16% in the previous month), which 52% was said to be very easy or fairly easy to obtain (Yuko, Harry, Jim and Mark, 2006).

Study based on the survey conducted on Ambrose, Ekpoma, Nigeria, in 2009 with the sample size of 414 participant , participant were found to abuse alcohol (66%), marijuana (44%), valium (32.9 %), Librium (21.3%), tobacco (20%), amphetamine (17%) and cocaine (16.2 %) (Oyaziwo, 2009).

Increase in drug taking among young people incorporates all levels of social relations. What began as the use of drugs in African traditional society for social relations changed over time into a problem of dependence and abuse and is of a great concern (Kerachio, 1994).

The study conducted on Kenyan revealed that majority of the respondents (80%) agreed that alcohol was the most frequently abused drug. The study posited that alcohol was the most abused drugs by participant because alcohol, unlike other drugs, does not have a drastic effect on personal health when consumed moderately; it is sold legally and has attained a commodity status (Lemis, et.al 2008). It is readily available and it is consumed mainly in pubs and other entertainment centres, which have features students crave. Besides, it is more acceptable in the society compared to other types of drugs. Moreover, it can easily be sneaked into school without detection. Also, most beer commercials have very attractive scenes (Lemis, et. al 2008).

The study found out that the main reason for drug abuse was peer pressure and the common symptoms indicated that particpant who abuse drugs had aggressive behavior, depression and anxiety, sudden changes ofappetite, cold clammy skin, irritable behavior, frequent complaints of headache, memory loss, over excitement, over suspicious, secretive and less self confidence symptoms (Lemis.et. Al 2008).

A report based on review of both qualitative and quantitative studies revealed that students and staff of institution of higher education of Ethiopia are at high risk of substance abuse (Kevin, Amelia, Arria and Dawn, 2008). Thirty one percent of adolescent of college of medical sciences in northwestern Ethiopia were current alcohol users followed by 26.3 and 23.3% current cigarette smokers and khat chewers respectively (Fekadu, Atalay, Charlotte, 2007). Smokers usually become dependent on nicotine and suffer physical and emotional (mental or psychological) withdrawal symptoms when they stop smoking. These symptoms include irritability, nervousness, headaches, and trouble sleeping. The true marker for addiction is that people still smoke even though they know smoking is bad for them, affecting their lives, health, and families in unhealthy ways. Most people want to quit psychoactive substance abuse, which refers to any substance that when taken by a person can modify perception, mood, cognition, behavior or motor functions (Fekadu, et, Al, 2007).

The most frequently used mood altering substances are cocaine, heroin, morphine, pethidine, barbiturates, amphetamine, alcohol, marijuana, minor tranquilizers particularly codeine, sleeping pills and nicotine. Abused drugs can be classified into five categories namely: stimulants (e.g. cocaine, nicotine and amphetamines), hallucinogens (e.g. lysergic diethyl amide), narcotics (e.g. cigarettes), tobacco and psychotropic (e.g. antidepressants and antipsychotic drugs) and there aresocial drugs (Fekadu,et. al, 2007) in Ethiopia such as khat and alcohol.

2.3 Prevalence of Drug Abuse Global and Ethiopia Overview

According to a United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime report on World Drug report 2011, in terms of production in volume is Cannabis that is the production of cannabis herb, followed by cannabis resin. The second largest illicit drug production is related to cocaine followed by heroin. Amphetamine-type stimulants production seems to be at a comparable level with heroin (UNODC, 2011).

The World Drug report further states that Cannabis herb production takes place across all continents and in almost all countries. Indoor production of cannabis, in contrast, is concentrated in developed countries in North America, Europe and Oceania. No reliable trend information of cannabis herb production at the global level is available. Cannabis herb seizures suggest a stable level of cannabis herb production globally (Mahder, 2014).

Cannabis resin production is geographically more limited. Based on information on the origin of cannabis resin, supplied by Member States, this seems to take place primarily in Morocco mainly producing for the markets in West and Central Europe and North Africa and Afghanistan mainly producing for neighboring countries in South-West Asia and for the local market.

Ethiopia is indicated as one of transit Areas for drug on the UNODC World Drug report of 2011. In a report by University of Gondar: the Substance Abuse for the Ethiopian Health Center Team (2005) states that Ethiopia is geographically situated in a very strategic place, where there is easy access to Asia, Europe and other parts of Africa. Moreover Ethiopian frontiers are vast and link it with about five countries, which increase the potential for drug smuggling. In the past few years there has been movement of heroin from the Indian subcontinent to West Africa and then to Europe and North America. Heroin traffickers have repeatedly been intercepted at Addis Ababa International airport and a considerable amount of heroin (up to 20kg/year) has been seized on different occasions.

The report by University of Gondar (2005) outlines further the severity and reasons as follows

- The rail connecting Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa and Djibouti creates a fruitful ground for smuggling and trafficking cannabis and exporting Khat.
- In the country Cannabis sativa is being cultivated in central, western and eastern administrative regions. Some of the cultivation areas are hidden among other groups or in wooden areas. This makes it difficult to detect and destroy the plant.
- Young people consume the plant for recreational purposes and in certain monasteries for religious as well as curative purposes.
- From 1987 to 1990 seventy-nine cases of cannabis sativa had been investigated. The trend of cannabis abuse by youngsters is increasing. Smoking is the usual route of abuse, but cannabis is occasionally ingested, or made into a “tea” and injected intravenously. Cannabis is a group activity.
- Cannabis (hashish) smoking is also escalating in the urban areas. In Addis Ababa, the police already know some hashish selling areas and some of the dealers as well as abusers are apprehended repeatedly.

2.4 Theoretical Background of substance Abuse

2.4.1 Sociological Theories

Sociological theories understand substance abuse as a societal phenomenon, having largely cultural, social, and economic origins or ties. Such causes are often external to the individual, i.e., they are not biological, genetic or psychological traits possessed by them. The conditions considered to be deviant were those that interfered with the “normal” or the “desirable” working of society. Conditions like crime, suicide, drunkenness, poverty, mental illness, prostitution and so forth, were deviant because they were known to be “band” persons or situations diverging from expectations that have been formulated in these terms are “sick.' Drug abuse occurs when acceptable social standards of drug use are violated, resulting in adverse physiological, psychological, and/or social consequences. In many cultures in Ethiopia, Substance Abuse may play a critical role as recreational stimulant, aid to work and religious practices, appetite suppressants. (Destefano, 1983) This indicates that abusing substances among highschool students considered as a deviant behavior in the society.

2.4.2 Social Learning Theory

The investigator focuses on the Social Learning Theory of Bandura (1977) enlightening the present study. The Social Learning Theory is also called the Social Cognitive Theory, provides a broad-band explanation for both desirable and undesirable behavioral outcomes. This theory focuses on the learning that occurs within the social context. According to this theory, to acquire a behavior, first it proposes that young people learn social behaviors through a process of observation and imitation of the role models or prototypes and the consequences of their behavior.

The social learning aspect of drug abuse can be related to parental modeling of drug related behaviors. A large body of literature has shown that parental use of alcohol and drugs is strongly related to misuse of substances. Parental drug use has been shown to predict initiation of drug use by adolescents, frequency of adolescent marijuana use, and adolescent use of additional illegal drugs such as cocaine and barbiturates

2.4.3 Symbolic Interactions

Symbolic internationalism which emphasizes the importance of definitions and labeling, concentrates on the social meanings associated with drug use. If the initial drug use experience is defined as pleasurable, it is likely to recur, and the individual may earn the label of “drug user” over time. If this definition is internalized so that the individual assumes an identity of a drug user, the behavior will probably continue and may even escalate.

Symbolic integrationist like Becker, Lemert and Goffman have traditionally maintained that deviance, such as drug and alcohol use and abuse, could best be understood as a type of “career,” or a set of behaviors, roles, and identities that comprise a lifestyle, running counter to conventional society in some ways and consistent in others. In short, deviance, like drug use, was best understood as a phenomenon that changed over time, with a beginning or entry point and often a desistance or end point (Clinated, 1978).

As Elmi bnotifies “the pleasant stimulation obtained when taking drugs induces many toabuse the drug. This may have damaging effects from a social and economic point of view. Some people may spend a great part of their earnings on substances, thus failing to ensure for themselves and their families important and vital needs. Excess of drug use may lead to family disintegration. The abuser often shows irritability and spends much of the time away from home. These facts and the failure of sexual intercourse after drug abuse may endanger family life” (Elmi AS, 1983) as cited in Henoke, A. People, for one or another reason, use drug. They may enjoy one type perhaps through time will add another; It may be to efface, to increase or substitute the effect of the previously used drug type.

The previously use drug type may also create other bodily or psychological need, which can be gained or temporarily enjoyed through other drug type. Through such and other process an individual develops combined or multiple drug use. It is clearly revealed in most study, undertaken by DACA and various researchers throughout Ethiopia revealed that, drug abuse among students is considered as a deviant behavior by the society and it is not allowed for students to abuse drugs. These habits lead to other devastating consequence to the individuals and the community.

2.4.4 The Psychological Theories

Psychological explanations focus on the tendency of certain personality types to be more susceptible to drug use. Individuals who are particularly prone to anxiety may be more likely to use drugs as a way to relax, gain self-confidence, or ease tension. For example, research indicates that child maltreatment, particularly among females, contributes to alcohol and drug abuse that extends into adulthood (Linda, Mooney; et.al, 2011)

Psychological theories of drug abuse also emphasize that drug use may be maintained by positive or negative reinforcement. Thus, for example, khat use may be maintained as a result of the rewarding “high” it produces a positive reinforcement. Alternatively, heroin use, often associated with severe withdrawal symptoms, may continue as a result of a negative reinforcement, that is, the distress the user feels when faced with withdrawal. Reinforcement may come from a variety of sources including the media.

This theory peculates that drug abuse is a symptom of underlying psychological problems and drug abusers are “self-medicating”. Drug use is a maladaptive psychological coping strategy and drug abusers need to resolve internal conflict, and when they do, drug use will be unnecessary (Daniel, 1997).

2.4.5 Structural-Functionalist Perspective

Structural functionalists argue that drug abuse is a response to weakening societal norms. As society becomes more complex and as rapid social change occurs, norms and values become unclear and ambiguous, resulting in anomie (a state of norm lessens). Anomie may exist at the societal level, resulting in social strains and inconsistencies that lead to drug use. Anomie produces inconsistencies in cultural norms regarding drug use. For example, although health care professionals warn of the dangers of alcohol and tobacco use, advertisers glorify the use of alcohol and tobacco.

Anomie may also exist at the individual level, as when a person suffers feelings of estrangement, isolation, and turmoil over appropriate and inappropriate behavior. An adolescent whose parents are experiencing a divorce, who is separated from friends and family as a consequence of moving, or who lacks parental supervision and discipline may be more vulnerable to drug use because of such conditions. Thus, from a structural-functionalist perspective, drug use is a response to the absence of a perceived bond between the individual and society and to the weakening of a consensus regarding what is considered acceptable.

2.5 Antecedent of substance use or Factors Influencing Substance Abuse

There are many factors influencing drug use and abuse among adolescents. Among them are psychological factors, psychiatric factors, family related factors, peer influence, mass media advertisement, accessibility and affordability (Seyoum and Ayalew, 1995).

According to Tesfaye.et.al (2014) , substance use and associated factors study done in Ethiopia , different variables showed a statistically significant association with substance use. After controlling for the effects of potentially confounding variables using multivariate logistic regression model, sex, marital status, year of study, religion, and depression were found to be statistically significant predictors of substance use.

[...]

• Hochschule: Yunivarsiitii Amboo
• Autor: Masresha Girum (Autor:in)
• Erscheinungsjahr: 2019
• Seiten: 91
• Katalognummer: V1330642
• ISBN (PDF): 9783346823373
• ISBN (Buch): 9783346823380
• Sprache: Englisch
• Schlagworte: substance, abuse, among, ethiopian, adolescents, qualitative, social, study