The significance of witchcraft in "Macbeth" and the role of prostitution in "Measure for Measure"

Essay , 2021 , 8 Pages , Grade: 1.5

English Language and Literature Studies - Literature

The opening scene in "Macbeth" already sets the tone for the entire play with the Weirs Sisters conjuring among thunder and lighting, foreshadowing their role in Macbeth’s affairs. But in what way do the Weirs Sisters instrumentalize their powers, that is witchcraft, to influence the plot and what are the consequences of their doings? In this essay, we will examine how the topic of witchcraft reflects socio cultural implications and beliefs in Elizabethan England especially in connection to a biblical and religious narrative.

Table of Contents

1. Introduction

2. HistoricalBackground

3. TheOmnipresenceofEvil

4. Macbeth’s Downfall and Free Choice

5. Conclusion
1. Introduction
2. Historical Associations
3. GenderRoles
4. Hypocrisy
5. Conclusion

Works Cited

Introduction

The opening scene in Macbeth already sets the tone for the entire play with the Weirs Sisters conjuring among thunder and lighting, foreshadowing their role in Macbeth's affairs. But in what way do the Weirs Sisters instrumentalize their powers, that is witchcraft, to influence the plot and what are the consequences of their doings? In this essay, we will examine how the topic of witchcraft reflects socio­cultural implications and beliefs in Elizabethan England especially in connection to a biblical and religious narrative.

Historical Background

The subject of witchcraft may seem insignificant and superstitious today, but in the seventeenth century it has had a serious impact on society and the way people perceived the world. Being a central topic in Macbeth, witchcraft reflects the socio-historical relevance of this issue and two underlying realities: an internalized misogynistic attitude and a general anxiety in society.

At the turn of the century, society was not only unsettled by the fear that the world was about to end (Kinney 57), but also defined by antithetical polarization, meaning that reality was perceived in a way that allowed a god versus devil, good versus evil narrative to be a leading viewpoint. In this context, the image of woman was also separated between good and evil, in correspondence to the biblical epitomes of temptation and holiness, Eve and the Virgin Mary (Kohl & Mora 49). Alongside other factors, the universal misogyny inherent in medieval society created the basis for Renaissance witch­hunt (Kohl & Mora 51). The Malleus maleficarum (I486), also called The Hammer of Witches, was the standard handbook used in the persecution of witches and defines characteristics of witch-practice and its harmful effects on people such as to plant hatred and jealousy, cause physical disease, deprive reason or take away life (Kohl & Mora 52). These features can be found in the Weird Sisters as well. They are the ones who portray Banquo as potential risk to Macbeth and "Upon [his] head they placed a fruitless crown"(Macbeth 3.1.60). Moreover, they lead sailors into death (Mac. 1.3.1) and their role in Macbeth's gradual decrease of reason is also not to be underestimated (Mac. 3.4.91). The source of witchcraft in Macbeth lies in society's involvement with and fascination about this topic (Coursen 21).

Hence, the plays' involvement with witchcraft reflects discourses of socio-historical relevance. In addition, Macbeth reinforces the biblical narrative that links woman to evil and temptation and perpetuates internalized misogyny by supporting the split image offemininity.

The Omnipresence of Evil

Witchcraft in Macbeth carries crucial meaning for the overall plot of the play and contributes to the general biblical narrative that men are confronted with the forces of evil.

Macbeth can be considered to be a typical Gunpowder play since it deals with "the apocalyptical destruction of a kingdom, with conclusions brought about by secret 'mining', plots and equivocation" (Wills in Coursen 25). In this context, witchcraft and the Weird Sisters in particular, participate to a large extent in this process (Coursen 25). In many respects Macbeth serves as "a study of evil and all its manifestations" (Morris 310) and reflects the forces of evil that operate in the world as well as evil's deceptive nature (Morris 311). Witchcraft is the central ability of the Weirs Sisters which allows them to wield their influence on Macbeth and thereby control the entire plot of the play. Moreover, they represent far more than simple witches but rather embody evil, or even the devil. According to traditional belief, witches are the devil's agents and act to deceive and "draw men into the toils of evil and snare souls for the great Adversary of mankind" (Parry 133).

Thus, witchcraft in Macbeth has socio-cultural implications that perpetuate the narrative about the omnipresence of evil in the world and its deceiving nature. Moreover, this demonstrates again the relevance of religious beliefs that are embedded in seventeenth-century culture.

Macbeth's Downfall and Free Choice

The role of the Weird Sisters and witchcraft in Macbeth's downfall and damnation is of special importance. Again, a biblical narrative plays into the equation, that is the discourse on free will.

Even though the question whether the Weird Sisters are witches or devils disguised as witches is left unanswered in the play (Muir in Morris 313), their participation in Macbeth's downfall cannot be disputed. However, Macbeth uses his free will to make the wrong choices which takes him to the point where he becomes the willingagent of his own damnation (Coursen 68). While the good man can resist evil, in Macbeth embodied by the Weird Sisters, the evil man yields to temptation, sins and falls (Morris 314). This dynamic between good and evil dramatizes the conflict of these two forces in the play and demonstrates the difference between righteous Christians such as Banquo and sinners such as Macbeth (Parry 133). Banquo immediately identifies the evil for what it is (Parry 134) and realises that "The instruments of darkness tell us truths, / Win us with honest trifles, to betray's / In deepest consequence" (1.3.126-128). In contrast, Macbeth only comprehends at the very end that he has been deceived (McCoy 183) and that it would have been better "To doubt th'equivocation of the fiend, / That lies like truth" (5.5.42-43).

Consequently, the Weird Sisters and their usage of witchcraft represent the forces of evil that participate in Macbeth's downfall and contribute to the overall narrative that addresses the fight between good and evil and the chance to make a choice between them.

Conclusion

Overall, witchcraft represents a significant instance in Macbeth that operates in many ways and affects the plot as well as the overall narrative. Not only is the notion of witches and witchcraft a reflection of the importance of this topic in seventeenth-century England, but also an echo of the internalized hostile attitudes towards women that is based on the split image of femininity. In addition, witchcraft represents the forces of evil that operate in the world and unfold its deceiving and wicked influence on men who are willing to follow in the path of damnation. Therefore, the role of the Weird Sisters and their practice is crucial to Macbeth's downfall, even though the final decision was based on his free will.

The Role of Prostitution in MeasureforMeasure

Introduction

"Judge not, that ye be not judged. For with what judgment ye judge, ye shall be judged: and with what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again" (New Jerusalem Bible in Saric 8). This verse from Matthew 7.1-5 refers to the title of Measure for Measure and summarizes its quintessence. Shakespeare hints at the concealed hypocrisy that is embedded in Elizabethan society and criticises its impact on concepts such as gender roles and morality. In this context, the topic of prostitution serves as prime example to create a parallel between the play and reality as well as to demonstrate its role in discourses about morality.

Historical Associations

Shakespeare's play Measure for Measure reveals much about the situation in Elizabethan England regarding prostitution. To a certain extent, it reflects seventeenth-century London and the ongoing moral debate.

The proclamation of 1546 established the closing of all brothels as an attempt to supress prostitution (Shugg 294). However, during Shakespeare's time prostitution was even increasing which led to more vice, crime and disease (Shugg 301). Moreover, there were efforts made to reinforce stricter morals in society through for example penalties against prostitution. The driving force behind these measures was the Puritan campaign for moral reforms (Shugg 303). In this context, Measure for Measure reflects seventeenth century struggles in dealing with moral as well as social repercussions of prostitution. Angelo's attempt to rid the city of its moral corruption resembles the endeavours made by ecclesiastical and civil authorities to address the problem with prostitution.

Elizabethan London was affected by a growth in prostitution which led to a corresponding increase in sin and disease. As consequence, Puritan morality demanded a reformation of morality and cleansing of society. Shakespeare projects this situation into Measure for Measure by constructing the plot around Angelo's attempt to ban prostitution and penalise debauchery.

Gender Roles

Underlying the theme of prostitution is another relevant dynamic portrayed in the play: the ambiguity of female gender roles. On the basis of the nun-wife-whore paradigm, a reading of Measure for Measure is possible that unveils prejudices and double standards concerning women in connection with prostitution.

While women were expected to be pure in order to present an acceptable wife, men were encouraged to engage in sexual activity with various women (Nelson in Saric 7). But the gender roles embedded in society not only determined a women's sexuality but their whole life was expected to revolve around them. Thus, marriage was seen as the pinnacle of a woman's life purpose and everything leading to marriage was regarded as preparation to this absolute stage (Saric 10). The female characters in Measurefor Measure can be classified on the basis of the nun-wife-whore paradigm, which implies as one extreme to be a prostitute and the other to be a nun (Fouassier in Saric 10). In this context, Isabella and Mistress Overdone are polar opposites, the former representing the nun extreme, while the latter can be located at the other extreme. Mariana who is "Neither maid, widow,/ nor wife" (Measure 5.1.7­8) is situated somewhere in between wife and whore, since she is in a transition state from maid to wife and Angelo is her "husband on a pre-contract" (4.1.71). Juliet occupies the same "gap between a wife and a prostitute" (Saric 12). Despite these differences in classification, most female characters share the similarity of being prostituted in one way or another. While Isabelle is expected to prostitute herself from Angelo, her brother and Lucio (Saric 17), Mariana prostitutes herself for the cause of making herself a legitimate wife (Saric 11).

Consequently, prostitution is a strong motif in Measure for Measure that concerns the female characters and has relevant implications for female gender roles. Apart from the double standards that traditional gender roles entail in terms of marriage, there is also the notion underlying of being prostituted by the male gaze.

Hypocrisy

Another crucial topic in the play that stands in close connection to prostitution is the hypocrisy that persisted in seventeenth-century England with regard to morality.

Not only does the play indirectly criticise the hypocrisy that is integral to Elizabethan society, especially with regard to the topic of debauchery and prostitution (Saric 7), but it also approaches the ambivalence of this subject. On the one hand, men engage with prostitutes but on the other hand they expect their future wife to be chaste (Saric 14). Angelo is a good example of this hypocritical attitude. He preaches to Escalus that "'This one thing to be tempted, Escalus,/Another thing to fall" (2.1.17-18) but as soon as Isabella asks for his mercy, he takes the opportunity and wants her to prostitute herself in order to save her brother's life.

Shakespeare highlights that the moral standards that are upheld in society exist only on the surface. In this respect, the topic of prostitution presents a convenient parallel to reflect seventeenth-century realities in Measurefor Measure.

Conclusion

In essence, Measure for Measure reflects on and criticises Elizabethan society with reference to the concept of prostitution. The call for measures against moral corruption are historically linked to the growth of prostitution around the seventeenth century. Moreover, female gender roles were inextricably intertwined with the notion of prostitution with regard to being classified on a scale of purity and impurity. However, these moral standards are just for keeping up appearances while in reality the people that pass judgements on others, are the ones that are characterised by hidden hypocrisy. Thus, the notion of prostitution takes a significant role in the play which frames the entire plot and its characters.

Works Cited

Coursen, Herbert. R. Macbeth: a Guide to the Play. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1997.

Kinney, Arthur F. "Apocalyptic References in the Play". William Shakespeare's Macbeth. Harold Bloom. 1st ed. New York: Bloom's Literary Criticism, 2011. 55-61.

McCoy, Richard C. "Shakespearean Tragedy and Religious Identity". A Companion toShakespeare's Works: The Tragedies. Ed. Richard Dutton and Jean E. Howard. Vol. 1. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2006,178-198.

Mora, George, and Benjamin Kohl, editors. Witches, Devils, and Doctors in the Renaissance. Binghamton, 1991.

Morris, Ivor. Shakespeare's God: the Role ofReligion in the Tragedies. London: Allen & Unwin, 1972.

Parry, Graham. "ATheological Reading of Macbeth". Caliban 21.1,1984,133-140.

Saric, Ivona . Shakespeare's Measurefor Measure and Prostitution in Elizabethan England. Thesis, Strossmayer University of Osijek, 2014.

Shakespeare, William. Macbeth, edited by Sandra Clark, and Pamela Mason, The Arden Shakespeare, 2015.

Shakespeare, William. MeasureforMeasure, edited byJ. M. Nosworthy, Penguin Books, 1969.

Shugg, Wallace. "Prostitution in Shakespeare's London."Shakespeare Studies, vol. 10,1977, 291-313.

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• College: Trinity College Dublin (School of English)
• Course: Shakespeare
• Grade: 1.5
• Author: M. Amira (Author)
• Publication Year: 2021
• Pages: 8
• Catalog Number: V1330077
• ISBN (PDF): 9783346824097
• Language: English
• Tags: macbeth, measure