Women empowerment remains an important subject of concern to governments and international organizations across the globe. It has been observed that a higher percentage of women within Africa are disempowered. This study was therefore conducted to assess the key indicators and dimensions of women empowerment in rural Zambia. The data used in the study was gathered from the 2018 Zambian Demographic and Health Survey. Following Alkire-Foster multidimensional poverty methodology, women empowerment was measured by using 11 indicators which were grouped into five dimension; agency, income, leadership, resources and workload/time. Data analysis was done by using descriptive statistics and probit and logit models. The findings revealed that 76.23% of rural women take joint decision on their health with their spouse; and 62.81% take join decision with their spouse on large household purchases. Apart from women in Eastern rural Zambia, majority of the women didn’t justify violence in any form. Additionally, 53.0% of rural women do not own a house and 45.42% can’t read at all while 97.34% rely on charcoal and wood and their cooking fuel.
Assessment of the Key Indicators and Dimensions of Women Empowerment in Rural Zambia
Anthony Abaidoo
Abstract- Wo men empowerment remains an important subject of concern to governments and international organizations across the globe. It has been observed that a higher percentage of women within Africa are disempowered. This study was therefore conducted to assess the key indicators and dimensions of women empowerment in rural Zambia. The data used in the study was gathered from the 2018 Zambian Demographic and Health Survey. Following Alkire-Foster multidimensional poverty methodology, women empowerment was measured by using 11 indicators which were grouped into five dimension; agency, income, leadership, resources and workload/time. Data analysis was done by using descriptive statistics and probit and logit models. The findings revealed that 76.23% of rural women take joint decision on their health with their spouse; and 62.81% take join decision with their spouse on large household purchases. Apart from women in Eastern rural Zambia, majority of the women didn’t justify violence in any form. Additionally, 53.0% of rural women do not own a house and 45.42% can’t read at all while 97.34% rely on charcoal and wood and their cooking fuel. Results from the probit and logit models indicated that whiles women’s marital status and those residing in rural Copperbelt, Southern and Western of regions of Zambia incases the probability of a woman being empowered, women’s age and level of education reduced the probability of women being empowered. This study therefore recommends that non-formal education should be organized for the rural women and effort should be made to ensure that the young ladies in rural Zambia are formerly educated. Again, intensive sensitization programs should be conducted for the rural women to educate them on their rights and significance of women empowerment.
I. Introduction
Women empowerment is still a vital concern in global discussions and remains deeply rooted in every society. This is because women empowerment play a critical role in ending extreme poverty (World Bank, 2014) and women’s contribution could increase global GDP by US$28 trillion by 2025 (Abney & Laya, 2018). Additionally, women devote substantial percentage of their budget to household benefits such as nutrition, health and education than men (Abney & Laya, 2018; Asaolu et al., 2018; The Hunger Project, 2014) and the entire society benefits when women are employed (International Monetary Fund, 2018). Notwithstanding the significant contributions of women towards individuals, families and global economies, they lack behind on so many indicators as compared to men. For example, the 2018 global labour force participation rate for women was 48.5 percent, which is 26.5 percent less than men (International Labour Organization, 2018); and they earn only 77 percent of what men earn even though they work longer hours than men when paid and unpaid work is taken into account (UN Women, 2018).
The United Nations through several initiatives such as Commission on Status of Women - 1946, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action - 1995, Millennium Declaration Goal 3-2000 and UN Women - 2010 have helped to provide the appropriate framework for women empowerment (UN, 2019) but the problem still lingers especially in rural part of Sub-Saharan Africa (Asaolu et al., 2018). Plethora of studies within this region have confirmed that sexual abuse and violence against women still persist (Asaolu et al, 2018; Peterman et al., 2015; Dako-Gyeke, 2013; Waltermaurer, 2012). In Zambia, women face economic, emotional and physical abuse challenges. Reported cases of sexual, emotional and physical abuse increased from 31.3% in 2014 to 32.3% in 2018 and the number of girls married at the age of 15 years was 9.6% in 214(Zambia Statistic Agency, 2019). Studies have found that women empowerment in Sub-Saharan Africa could be accelerated if women are given the equal financial opportunities and the necessary support to exercise control over important assets such house, income and land (Asaolu et al, 2018; World Bank, 2017). At the 2017 Boosting Women’s Economic Empowerment, it was emphasized that Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5, can only be achieved by 2030 if government and stakeholders demonstrate high levels of commitment (UN, 2017). This study is therefore conducted to assess the critical indicators and dimensions for women empowerment in rural Zambia.
II. Methodology
a) Source of Data
The data used in this study was extracted from the 2018 Zambia Demographic and Health Survey (ZDHS) which accessible via https://dhsprogram.com/ data/dataset/Zambia_Standard-DHS_2018.cfm?flag=1. DHS is conducted primarily to provide guidance for policy decision making and its implementation with emphasis on health indicators such as awareness and use of family planning; breast feeding practices; nutritional status of children; and early childhood and maternal mortality. The 2018 ZDHS is the sixth round and the data was collected from July 18, 2018 to January 24, 2019; with the aim of providing current update on basic demographic and health indicators (Zambia Statistics Agency and Ministry of Health, 2019). Using two-stage stratified sample design, 545 clusters were selected across the country and 13,625 households were also selected through equal probability systematic sampling. The sample size for individual women was 13,683 but the data was stratified to select 8,170 rural women from the ten geopolitical zones.
b) Measurement of Women Empowerment
i. Women Empowerment
Several authors have given different definitions of women empowerment. These definitions differ in terms of the context in which women empowerment is being used; being it economic, political or socio-cultural. For example, Kabeer (1999) describes women empowerment as a process where those (women) who were denied certain strategic choices are being given the ability to make those strategic decisions. Similarly, Veneklasen and Miller (2002) posits that women empowerment is the process where women’s power to take strategic decision is enhanced. In this study, women empowerment has been contextualized to mean agency and autonomy and it is viewed as a multidimensional process.
j. . Measurement
Realistic and good measurement serves as the bedrock for assessing women empowerment. However, researchers have adopted different measurements especially the scaling which makes comparison difficult (Lombardini, Bowman, & Garwood, 2017; Biswas, 2004). For example, Huis, Hansen, Otten and Lensink (2017) measured women empowerment from three dimensional levels, micro-level, meso-level and macrolevel. Lombardini, Bowman, and Garwood, (2017) also adopted three by focusing on individual, relational and environmental levels. Some studies have also adopted four dimensions, economic, socio-cultural, education and health to measure women empowerment (Asaolu et al., 2018; Pratley, 2016; Jennings et al., 2014).
To ensure standardization and comparison majority of studies (Oluwakemi & Amaka, 2020; Ayevbuonwan, Popoola & Adeoli, 2016; The Hunger Project, 2014; Alkire et al., 2013) have now adopted the multi-dimensional poverty index methodology developed by Alkire and Foster (2007; 2011). This study adopted the Alkire-Foster (2007) methodology.
k. i. Alkire-Foster Methodology
This method involves two steps: Identification (pk)and aggregation methods. Whiles the identification method reveals who is empowered by considering the factors that leads to the empowerment, the aggregation method generates a set of disempowerment measures (M a) which can be disaggregated to target the most empowered. The aggregation method follows Foster Greer and Thorbecke (1984) traditional measures.
From the above, let y = (yj.) with n x d matrix of achievement. Where n is the number of respondents and d is a measure for the number of dimensions; y= (y jj) shows the achievement of respondents j = 1,2,... n in j dimensions of j = 1,2, d. The list of respondent’s achievements and the distribution of respondent’s achievement across various respondents is represented by the row vector (yi = y 1 1 yi 2... y d)and column vector (y j. = y 1 j. y 2 j.... y j.) respectively.
Additionally, the cut off for disempowered respondents is represented by Z j > 0 in the j dimension and Z is the specific cut off dimension vector. Let |v| be the sum of all elements and ^ (V) represent the mean of | V |.
With a given level of achievement define by matrix y, it is possible to define matrix g 0[ gjj 0]with element g. . 0 also defined by g. . 0 = 1 only if y. < Z . and g 0 = 0. This implies that g 0 = 0 is a n x d matrix with an th matrix = 1 when respondent is empowered and for 0 otherwise.
From the aforementioned the column vector c for empowerment count can be constructed with j th entry as c = | g j 0|. This expression represent the level of empowerment enjoyed by the respondent.
Following Alkire-Foster (2007) once again, to identify the disempowered respondents, the vector c which represent disempowered count is compared to the cut of k (where k = 1... d). This implies that p, which is the identification step, can now be defined as pk (yz) = 1; when c j < k, c j > k, and pk (yz) = 0. For respondents who are disempowered in multiple dimensions, their identification step is defined as z k = { j: Pk (yz)}.
The pk has been labeled as dual cutoff by Alkire-Foster because it tackles within cutoff dimensions (Z j) and across cutoff dimensions(k). This enable us to determine respondents who are multi-dimensionally disempowered.
In applying the Alkire-Foster methodology, there is a need to first apply the Head count ratio H = h (y; z). This is defined as h = qyn. Where H is the percentage of disempowered respondents or the Head count ratio; and q = q (y, z) represent the number of respondents in set Zk, which is identified by using the dual cutoff method pk.
According to Alkire-Foster (2007), the percentage of disempowered respondents(H) should be adjusted by the respondent’s average number of achievements. By implication, ck is defined as the disempowered censored vector so that if c < (k) then c (k) = 0 and if c > k then c . (k) = c.
Per the pk dual cutoff method, c (k) number of categories will always represent one of the disempowered respondents. If this assumption holds, respondents experience within the shared dimensions will be c (k)d and A = c (kqd)| will be the average disempowered shared dimensions across the respondents.
If we put emphasis on the disempowered, the final head count ratio which satisfies the properties of decomposability can be captured as M 0 = HA. Where M 0 (y; z) is the adjusted head count ratio and it satisfies dimensional monotonicity. This is because with any additional dimension, A increases when a rural respondent is disempowered.
l. . Co mputation of Women Empowerment Index (WEI)
The WEI computation was done by following Alkire et al., (2013). WEI is a composite index used to measure the progress of women empowerment in a multidimensional context (The Hunger Project, 2014); and it compares women achievement as a factor of men’s achievement. WEI comprises of five key domains (5DE): Agency, Income, Leadership, Resources, and Time.
WEI has two major components: Gender Parity Ratio (GPR) and Women Achievement Ratio (WAR). The GPR is a measure that compares women’s achievements to men within the same community while WAR measures women’s achievements based on some defined goals and targets (Alkire et al., 2013).
As indicated earlier, scoring is major challenge in comparing women empowerment across different communities and countries. With WEI, the score is computed at the aggregate level to assess the overall level of women empowerment. The five domains (5DE) used in the computation is assigned equal weights. Each domain is assess by using two to three data points. Table 1 below present contextualized five domains and borrowed scoring from Alkire et al., (2013).
Table 1: Five domains of women empowerment and their weights
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
According to the Hunger Project (2014), the overall WEI can be computed as:
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
However, this study adopted Alkire and Sabina et al (2012) methodology in estimating the overall WEI. Per their method, the WEI is estimated as:
WAR or 5DE = H e + H e * A e
He = % of women who are empowered
Hne = % of women who are not empowered (1- He)
Ae = the average absolute empowerment score among the disempowered
Alternatively, 5DE can or WAR can be estimated by using: M 0 = H dPp * A sm
Where H dp is the multidimensional deprivation headcount ratio and Asm is the average percentage of simultaneous deprivations suffered by the disempowered. Based on this, 5DE = 1 - M 0;
Where M 0 is the multidimensional disempowerment. The Gender Parity Index (GPI) is also estimated as:
GPI = 1 - HGPi x IGPi
From the above:
HGPi is the percentage of gender parity inadequate households;
IGPi is the average empowerment gap between women and men living in the household that lack gender parity.
The overall WEI is therefore: 0.6(5DE) + 0.4(GPI)
Although the overall WEI is 100(Hunger Project, 2014), 80 was used as the threshold for this study. This implies that women with at least 80 score indicates higher degree of women empowerment within the community.
v. Explanation of the computation of the five domains
The five domains (5DE); Agency, Income, leadership, Resources and Time/Workload was estimated by using 11 indicators.
w. Agency
This was computed by using three indicators: decision on visit to hospital; decision on household purchases; and perception on violence. The indicators were coded as 0 and 1 with 1 representing sole or joint decision on particular indicator and 0 for otherwise. A respondent who partake in sole or joint decision (i.e., value of 1) is considered empowered.
x. Income
Income was assessed with two indicators: women ownership to a business and decision on control of earnings. Similarly, this domain was coded as 1 and
The general regression model is given by:
0, where 1 shows sole or joint decision and 0 otherwise. A respondent who partake in sole or joint decision (i.e., value of 1) is considered empowered.
y. Leadership
Women’s leadership was based on tow indicators: ownership of house since such women will part of a group of landlord association; and discussion about family planning with health workers. This also measures the woman’s confidence level. The indicators were coded as 0 and 1 with 1 representing sole of joint ownership of house; and the same coding to represent with 1 indicating yes if respondents had a discussion with health worker on family planning and 0 for otherwise. A respondent who has sole or joint ownership of house (i.e., value of 1) and also discus family planning with health worker (i.e., value of 1) is considered empowered.
z. Resources
Literacy rate and minimum number of prenatal care visit was the two indicators used to estimate women’s resources. A value of 1 was used to represent respondent’s ability to read or write and 0 for otherwise. The same value of 1 was used to indicate yes for respondents who cared about their health and went for prenatal care visit and 0 for otherwise. For each indicator, a respondent is empowered with a value of 1 and 0 for otherwise.
aa. Time/workload
The type of cooking fuel and time spent to access water were used as the two indicators for this domain. Women who used traditional cooking fuel like wood are likely to spend more time cooking hence the code 0 and 1 for improved cooking fuel like gas or electric. Respondents who spend less than 30 minutes to access water were coded as 1 and 0 for otherwise. For each indicator, a respondent is empowered with a value of 1 and 0 for otherwise.
c) Empirical Model
In order to assess the determinants of women empowerment in this study, the probit and logit model was adopted.
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
The variables are explained in Table 2 below:
Table 2: Explanation of variables
Variables Definition
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Source: Author’s Own Construct (July 2020)
111. Results and Discussion
a) Descriptive Statistics
Table 1 presets the descriptive statistics for the indicators of women empowerment. Frequencies and percentages were used in the study. On decision to health care, the pooled results showed that 76.23 percent of women take such decision with their spouse. Only 23 percent of their spouses take the decision alone. This result was consistent across all the ten regions in rural Zambia. The implication is that women in rural Zambia are empowered when it comes to decision on their health care. This confirms Habtamu (2014) who found that women play a vital role on decision of their healthcare. Similarly, 62.81 percent of decision on large household purchases was taken jointly by women and their spouses. This is in contrast with Obayelu and Chime (2020) who found that women have less autonomy on decision on large household purchases. The findings was consistent across all the ten region with the exception of Eastern region where 51.9 percent of decision on large household purchases are taken by only husband/partners. Women within this region have less autonomy on this indicator hence confirms Obayelu and Chime (2020) results. Apart from Luapula, women across the other nine regions frowned on domestic violence against them. From the pooled results, 65.08 percent didn’t justify beating based on going out without telling husband; 60.73 percent didn’t justify beating based on neglect of child; 58.30 percent on argument with husband; 60.13 percent on failure to have sex with husband; and 69.89 percent didn’t justify beating based on burning food. Generally, it is expected that majority of women wont justify any form of domestic violence since it infringes pain on them and also have health consequences.
Majority (72.66%) of women operated their own business and only 27.34 percent operated business for someone else. Moreover, 72.72 percent of women jointly took decision on earning with their spouse and 24.28 percent was taken solely by their spouses. Since only 24.28 percent of women spouses takes sole decision on earning, women in Zambia play a vital role in decision on their earning. This is consistent with Obayelu and Chime (2020) who reported that 79 percent of women make join decision on earning with their spouses in rural Nigeria. Additionally, 55.82 percent of the rural women in Zambia do not own a house whiles 1.77 percent of their spouses own a house. Ownership important asset such as a house is a problem in rural Zambia for women. Their ability to possess such important asset will enhance their empowerment level.
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