International Development and Communication. Describing Social Issues

Livre Spécialisé , 2022 , 172 Pages , Note: 8.5

Sociologie - Système social et Structure sociale

This book presents a recompilation of nine essays written by the author, on the subject of international development, and international communication. Thus, the topics covered here are; 1) The goal of achieving equality and justice through implementing Sustainable Development Goals. 2) Description of the application of the theory of “imagined communities” to the Colombian Diasporas in Ecuador and the United States of America. 3) How to achieve successful projects? 4) Why there are extreme poverty and hunger in Venezuela? 5) Problems that create Intercultural communication issues. 6) Description of the current situation of Colombians refugees in the world. 7) Also, there is an essay describing the issues faced by refugees globally and the solution to the refugee crisis. 8) This essay responds to the question: Are the discourses of development mechanisms of power and control? And essay nine talks about the effect of the neo-structuralism and retro-liberalism paradigms on the success of the sustainable development goals by 2030.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
Achieving equality and justice for all through the implementation and monitoring of the Sustainable Development Goals

CHAPTER TWO
Application of the theory of “imagined communities” to the Colombian Diasporas in Ecuador and United States of America
References

CHAPTER THREE
Collaborative teams, the key to achieving successful projects
References

CHAPTER FOUR
Extreme Poverty and Hunger in Venezuela: The result of the economic decline of an oil nation
Overview of extreme poverty and hunger in Venezuela
What have been the causes of poverty and hunger in Venezuela?
What could be done in order to reduce poverty and hunger in Venezuela?
Conclusion
References

CHAPTER FIVE
Intercultural communication issues faced by the Colombians refugees in Ecuador
Introduction
Cultural dimensions’ theory
Who is a refugee?
Discrimination against Colombians in Ecuador
Persecution suffered by Colombian refugees in Ecuador
The impact of food insecurity among the Colombian refugees in Ecuador
Conclusion
References

CHAPTER SIX
The current situation of Colombian refugees in the world
Introduction
The situation of displaced people before escaping from Colombia
The situation of Colombian refugees after escaping from Colombia
The situation of Colombian refugees in developing countries
The situation of Colombian refugees in industrialized countries
Conclusion
References

CHAPTER SEVEN
The discourses of development: Mechanism of power and control?
Introduction
Development theories that have not contributed to international development
Other concepts about development
Benefits and drawbacks of modern development
Conclusion
References

CHAPTER EIGHT
The effect of the neo-structuralism and retro-liberalism paradigms on the success
of the sustainable development goals by 2030
Introduction
The neo-structural policy landscape paradigm and its features
The retro-liberal policy landscape paradigm and its features
The neo-structural and retro-liberal paradigms and its effect on the Sustainable
Development Goals
Conclusion
References

CHAPTER NINE
The current situation of refugees worldwide
Introduction
Conflicts that have created refugees
Researches conducted by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
Life in refugee camps
Life as urban refugees
Three durable solutions for refugees offered by UNHCR
Summary

PART TWO: The current situation of refugees in New Zealand
How refugees are prepared for resettlement in New Zealand
What are the challenges faced by refugees when resettling in New Zealand?
What role does reconciliation play in the process of integration into New
Zealand?
How Do refugees resign themselves to integrate in New Zealand in order to rebuild their lives and survive?
Conclusion
References

ABSTRACT

This book presents a recompilation of nine essays written by the author, on the subject of international development, and international communication. Thus, the topics covered here are; 1) the goal of achieving equality and justice through implementing Sustainable Development Goals. 2) Description of the application of the theory of “imagined communities” to the Colombian Diasporas in Ecuador and the United States of America. 3) How to achieve successful projects? 4) Why there are extreme poverty and hunger in Venezuela? 5) Problems that create Intercultural communication issues. 6) Description of the current situation of Colombians refugees in the world. 7) Also, there is an essay describing the issues faced by refugees globally and the solution to the refugee crisis. 8) This essay responds to the question: Are the discourses of development mechanisms of power and control? And essay nine talks about the effect of the neo-structuralism and retro-liberalism paradigms on the success of the sustainable development goals by 2030

CHAPTER ONE

Achieving equality and justice for all through the implementation and monitoring of the Sustainable Development Goals

On 18 September 2000, the United Nations and its General Assembly adopted the Millennium Development Goals (Rigg, 2014; Potter, 2014; Elliott, 2014; UNDP & WBG, 2015). This project was launched with the objective of contributing to the development of the poorest countries in terms of eradicating extreme hunger, poverty and facilitate access to education. Also, it aimed to promote gender equality and health for all. In order to achieve its purpose by 2015, the Millennium Development Goals were distributed in eight goals, 18 targets and 48 indicators (Rigg, 2014). However, by the end of 2015 and until now, millions of people living in developing countries continue facing hunger, extreme poverty, lack of education and health support; which could indicate that the Millennium Development Goals did not achieve its objectives completely (McArthur & Rasmussen, 2017). For this reason, in September 2015, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted a new international development project named the Sustainable Development Goals, with the aim of promoting the sustainable development of all the countries in the world and the deadline is 2030 (UN General Assembly, 2015). The Sustainable Development Goals are wider than the Millennium Development Goals. For example, with the aim of promoting and achieving equality and justice for all the Sustainable Development Goals have allocated 17 goals, 169 targets and 230 indicators. Nevertheless, some of the questions that arise are: how may the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals lead equality and justice for all? and can the success of the Sustainable Development Goals be determined through its indicators? This essay focuses on responding to these two questions.

Before answering these two questions, it is important to describe the 17 goals of the sustainable development agenda and examine if each of these could contribute to achieving justice and equality for all human beings. The UN General

Assembly (2015) describes the 17 goals as follow:

“Goal 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere.

Goal 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.

Goal 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.

Goal 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.

Goal 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

Goal 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all

Goal 7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.

Goal 8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.

Goal 9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation.

Goal 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries.

Goal 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.

Goal 12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.

Goal 13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.

Goal 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development.

Goal 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.

Goal 16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.

Goal 17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development.” (p. 16)

It is very interesting that the first goal of the sustainable development agenda for 2030 is the eradication of extreme poverty in all its forms and dimensions everywhere in the world (United Nations & Economic and Social Council, 2016). This turns out to be very hopeful for the millions of poor people in the world. For example, in every corner of the globe, there are people living in poverty, it does not matter if they live in developed or developing countries (Dhongde & Minoiu, 2012). Thus, extreme poverty is an issue faced by more de 767 million people worldwide no just in poor countries (World Bank Group, 2018). Likewise, the second goal of the agenda is to eradicate hunger of the planet, so that each person in the world has food security. Once again, this turns out to be good news for the millions of people in the world who lack food security (Vincent, et al., 2013). The third goal promotes good health and well-being for all, which offers solutions for people who do not have financial resources to access a quality health system (Ryan, 2001). The fourth goal focuses on providing permanent quality education for all people (UN General Assembly, 2015). It can be noted then that the first four goals briefly analysed in this paragraph are focused on leading to equality and social justice for all people in the world.

The fifth goal of the agenda emphasizes the importance of gender equality (UN General Assembly, 2015). For this reason, this goal seeks that the masculine society gives women and girls the respect, dignity and honour that they deserve. It also promotes the fair concept that men and women are equal and that consequently there is no superiority of man over a woman (Chary, 2017). On the other hand, goal six promotes the permanent supply of clean water and sanitation for all people (Bhaduri, et al., 2016). The implementation of this goal and its fulfilment would improve the quality of life of many people who lack the provision of water (Tortora & Rheault, 2008). The seventh goal of the sustainable development agenda seeks that all people have access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy (UN General Assembly, 2015). It should be noted that once again this goal uses the expression 'for all'. Which indicates that equality and justice for each person are promoted through these 17 goals. The expression 'for all' continues to appear in the sustainable development goals and in this opportunity is also included in goal eight, where decent and productive work 'for all' is promoted, as well as economic growth (UN General Assembly, 2015). It could be argued then that the eight goals already analysed clearly promote equality and social justice ‘for all' the people of the world.

Goal nine promotes infrastructure, industrialization and innovation. This with the purpose of "support economic development and human well-being, with a focus on affordable and equitable access ‘for all'" (United Nations & Economic and Social Council, 2016, p. 25). Likewise, the fact that the goals of sustainable development may lead to equality and justice ‘for all' is framed in goal 10 where it says: "reduce inequality within and among countries" (UN General Assembly, 2015, p. 16). Goal 11 is that by the year 2030, everyone on the planet will have access to adequate housing and basic services, in addition to improving and developing marginal neighbourhoods (United Nations & Economic and Social Council, 2016). Goal 12 promotes responsible consumption and production. In regards to this, the United Nations and Economic and Social Council (2016) say that "by 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature" (p. 29). The four goals described in this paragraph like the previous ones show that they were designed to promote justice and equality for all.

Goal 13 of the Sustainable Development Agenda promotes actions against climate change and its impacts in all countries (UN General Assembly, 2015). The creation and implementing of this goal represent an environmental benefit for the planet and for all the people who inhabit it (United Nations & Economic and Social Council, 2016). Therefore, it could be said that this goal reflects equality and justice for all in the sense that it aims that all human beings live in a world free of global warming and climate change (Bauer, Grotz, Connelly, & Colosi, 2016; Sainju, 2016). Similarly, goal 14 promotes the sustainable use of oceans and its natural resources (UN General Assembly, 2015). This implies caring for the seas and oceans so that they are free of pollution, what will benefit the world population especially people who live off fishing, but also to all those people whose diet is based on marine products. On the other hand, goal 15 is designed to protect and care for terrestrial ecosystems and biodiversity of the planet (UN General Assembly, 2015). The implementation of this goal would contribute to the reduction of global warming and therefore report great benefits to the entire population worldwide (Doyle, 2017).

Goal 16 of the sustainable development agenda focuses on promoting peaceful societies that have easy access to justice for all through strong institutions (UN General Assembly, 2015). It should be noted that the expression 'for all' appears once again in this goal. Demonstrating the intention to seek equality and social justice for all the people of the world (United Nations & Economic and Social Council, 2016). Finally, goal 17 promotes the strengthening of partnerships among all countries in order to successfully achieve the 17 goals of sustainable development by the year 2030 (UN General Assembly, 2015).

After having briefly explored and analyzed the 17 goals of the sustainable development agenda, the following question arises: how may the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals lead equality and justice for all? Through the analysis of the 17 goals, it can be seen that these have been designed to achieve equality and justice for all human beings (United Nations & Economic and Social Council, 2016). However, the 17 goals of the sustainable development agenda do not guarantee that each country will successfully implement all these goals (UN General Assembly, 2015). In order to achieve true equality and justice for all, it is required that all the governments of the world commit themselves seriously to implement, monitor and fulfil these goals. Unfortunately, some countries like Venezuela, Cuba, North Korea and others do not make great efforts to implement these goals (Rumbaut & Rumbaut, 2009; Martinez, 2014; Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein, 2017; Human Rights Watch, 2018). In fact, the corruption of these governments prevents equality and justice for all and affect economic growth (Kochanova, 2015). Therefore, to achieve true equality and justice for all, it would be necessary to put an end to all traces of corruption, greed and selfishness. Only the implementation of the 17 goals may achieve its objective.

The second question that arises is the following: Can the success of the Sustainable Development Goals be determined through its indicators? As described in paragraph one, the sustainable development goals have a set of 230 indicators that can be used as a monitoring tool to measure the scope and achievement of the 17 goals and its 169 targets (Dunning, 2016; United Nations & Economic and Social Council, 2016). Also, it is a strategy to collect data from all the countries and through this data determine if the 17 goals are being achieved or not (Dunning, 2016). Therefore, if all the data collected from the countries are serious and reliable, then this data could be used to determine if the implementation of the 17 goals of the sustainable development agenda for the year 2030, has been successful or not. However, compiling this data requires effort, as Dunning (2016) affirms Numerous groups both within the UN and without are focused on SDG implementation and the relevant data to monitor it. It’s one thing to identify the countries and targets for which we lack data; it’s quite another to get the systems in place to mark baselines and begin reporting on indicator progress. If the UN and its member states are prepared to advance an agenda with 17 goals, 169 targets, and 230 indicators, they must also be prepared to bring the same level of ambition and resolve to monitoring and implementation. (para. 6)

In conclusion, this essay described and analysed the 17 goals of the sustainable development agenda for 2030. The exploration of the aforementioned goals served as the basis for answering the next two questions: how may the implementation of sustainable development goals lead to equality and justice for all? And can the success of the sustainable development goals be determined through its indicators? This essay also showed that the implementation of sustainable development goals can lead to equality and social justice for all people in the world, but this requires that the governments of the world make an effort to implement these goals in their respective countries and leave corruption aside. Finally, the essay explained that the 230 indicators of the sustainable development agenda can serve to determine the success of these goals, but this requires that reliable data be collected.

References

Bauer, S. K., Grotz, L. S., Connelly, E. B., & Colosi, L. M. (2016). Reevaluation of the global warming impacts of algae-derived biofuels to account for possible contributions of nitrous oxide. Bioresource Technology, 218, 196-201.

Bhaduri, A., Bogardi, J., Siddiqi, A., Voigt, H., Vörösmarty, C., Pahl-Wostl, C., . . . Osuna, V. R. (2016). Achieving Sustainable Development Goals from a Water Perspective. Frontiers in Environmental Science, Volume 4 |Article 64: 1-13 doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2016.00064.

Chary, S. N. (2017). Gender Equality: A View From India. Journal of Management Inquiry, Vol. 26(1) 108.

Dhongde, S., & Minoiu, C. (2012). Global Poverty Estimates: A Sensitivity Analysis. World Development, Volume 44 Pages 1-13.

Doyle, A. (2017, October 17). Plant more trees to combat climate change: scientists. Retrieved from reuters.com: https://www.reuters.com/article/us- climatechange-land/plant-more-trees-to-combat-climate-change-scientists- idUSKBN1CL2PP

Dunning, C. (2016, March 15). 230 Indicators Approved for SDG Agenda. Retrieved from https://www.cgdev.org: https://www.cgdev.org/blog/230-indicators- approved-sdg-agenda

Elliott, J. A. (2014). Development and social welfare/human rights. In V. Desai, & R. B. Potter, The companion to development studies third edition (pp. 28-33). London and New York: Routledge.

Human Rights Watch. (2018, December 22). North Korea Events of 17. Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org: https://www.hrw.org/world- report/2018/country-chapters/north-korea Kochanova, A. (2015, May 6). How does corruption affect economic growth?

Retrieved from https://www.weforum.org: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/05/how-does-corruption-affect- economic-growth/ Martinez, A. (2014, January 5). Cuba: 55 ahos de revolution con 7000 Muertos.

Retrieved November 20, 2017, from Cubaenmiami.: http://www.cubaenmiami.com/cuba-55-anos-de-revolucion-con-7000- muertos/

McArthur, J. W., & Rasmussen, K. (2017). Change of peace: accelerations and advances during the millennium development goal era. Washington: Global economy & development.

Potter, R. B. (2014). Measuring development: From GDP to the HDI and wider approaches. In V. Desai, & R. B. Potter, The companion to development studies third edition (pp. 56-59). London and New York: Routledge.

Rigg, J. (2014). The millennium development goals. In V. Desai, & R. B. Potter, The companion to Development studies third edition (pp. 67-73). London and New York: Routledge.

Rumbaut, L. E., & Rumbaut, R. G. (2009). Survivor: Cuba. The Cuban Revolution at 50. Latin American Perspective, Issue 164, Vol. 36 No. 1, January 2009 84-98.

Ryan, T. (2001). Health. Journal of alternative and complementary medicine, 7 (4), 303-306.

Sainju, U. M. (2016). A Global Meta-Analysis on the Impact of Management Practices on Net Global Warming Potential and Greenhouse Gas Intensity from Cropland Soils. PLoS ONE, 1-26 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.014852.

Tortora, B., & Rheault, M. (2008, August 27). Clean Water, or Lack Thereof, Plight of Many in Africa. Retrieved from http://news.gallup.com: http://news.gallup.com/poll/109831/clean-water-lack-thereof-plight-many- africa.aspx

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Vincent, H., Wiersema, J., Kell, S., Fielder, H., Dobbie, S., Castaneda-Älvarez, N. P., . . . Maxted, N. (2013). A prioritized crop wild relative inventory to help underpin global food security. Biological Conservation, 265-275.

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Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein, P. (2017, November 13). Arria formula meeting on the situation in Venezuela: Statement by the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Mr Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein. Retrieved November 20, 2017, from www.ohchr.org: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=2 2392&LangID=E

CHAPTER TWO

Application of the theory of “imagined communities” to the Colombian Diasporas in Ecuador and United States of America

Nowadays, there are many Diasporas scattered around the world. All of them have their own identity, culture and thoughts. Originally, the Diaspora term was used to describe the expulsion of Jews from Judea (Cohen, 2008). Therefore, the word “Diaspora” comes from the Greek language, normally employed in the Septuagint Bible version, time later this expression was translated into English as scattered, exiles, driven out, dispersed and so on (H. Im & Yong, 2014). After that, from the 1980s “Diaspora was deployed as a metaphoric designation to describe different categories of people, expatriates, expellees, political refugees, alien residents, immigrants and ethnic and racial minorities" (Cohen, 2008, p. 1). Due to globalisation, such Diasporas continue to grow in the world and is very common to see and hear news on migration issues in many regions, especially in developed countries, where migrants selected these developed places hoping to have a better lifestyle, given as result the continue growing of Diasporas worldwide (H. Im & Yong, 2014).

It could be said that Diasporas have been formed by migration of tourists, refugees, expatriates, occasional workers, communities and overseas exile. Although Diasporas differ in culture, beliefs, background and thoughts, all have things in common such as a clear vision of their homeland, their feeling of belongingness to their homeland, their hopefulness to return to their country and their willingness of keeping their cultures and traditions (Lie, 2002). Due to those reasons, diaspora communities create their own identity which distinguishes them from other Diasporas (Bauböck & Faist, 2010). But the question is, why diaspora communities create their own identity abroad? Could the ideas of Benedict Anderson and Arjun Appadurai provide a clear explanation of this issue? This essay will discuss and analyse briefly the theory by Benedict Anderson of "imagined communities" and the theory of “scapes” by Arjun Appadurai. After that, these theories by Anderson and Appadurai will be applied to the Colombian Diasporas in Ecuador and United States of America. Finally, the conclusion of this essay will display a summary of how Colombian Diasporas have created their own identity according to Anderson and Appadurai theories.

Firstly, from his point of view, Anderson (1983) explains different concepts of great importance, among which is the concept of "Imagined Communities" to define, intermediately, what is a nation. He also explains how these communities are born and spread in particular ways into a society, always depending on the time and culture in which those communities fall. Anderson for instance, defines the word "nation” as “an imagined political community and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign” (Anderson, 1983, p. 49). Furthermore, Anderson states that “It is imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow- members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion” (Anderson, 1983, p. 49). This means that those who belong to the same community learn that they will never know each other in full, but they believe that there is a real nation and that, many of their own experiences are experienced in the same way by many of other compatriots. In other words, at some point throughout history, a daily structured practice has allowed imaginary people to be part of something, as a result, common identities are formed.

Secondly, the theory of Appadurai affirms that global culture is composed by five "scapes" which are denominated ethnoscapes, mediascapes, technoscapes, finanscapes and ideoscapes. Additionally, Appadurai believes that these five 'scapes' are established by special points of view, generated by social actors as imagined worlds. This approach shows that the theories of Appadurai and Anderson are very alike (Robinson, 2011). Then, it can be seen that both writers agree with the fact that humanity lives in an imagined world or community, where its imagination allows people to accept that they belong to such nation by the reason to have been born and grown up over there, and although they know very little about their local communities and the people who are living over there, they accept it firmly as a real nation (Bauböck & Faist, 2010). In my view, despite the similarities on the theories from both of the authors, they expose different approaches, providing valuable information that makes that their theories achieve an equal level of significance.

Thirdly, the theories given above could be applied to any diaspora in the world. For instance, in Colombia the African Diasporas have their own identity and although a lot of them have born in Colombia's land until now these Diasporas preserved Africa's culture, language and traditions. In fact, they call themselves Afro- Colombians, because they believe that Africa is their homeland, and despite being away from home, they are convinced that they are part of Africa. Actually, it is very common to see them listening African music and developing it into new musicals rhythms, especially in the Colombian’s Caribbean region. (Delgado, 2013). In the above example, it can be seen that fulfillment of the theories of Anderson and Appadurai. As the African diaspora in Colombia is convinced that they are part of Africa, but most of its descendants have been born in Colombia and have not been to Africa, however, they believe that Africa exists. In other words, they believe in an imagined Africa, and they do not know all members of their imagined community (Anderson, 1983).

Likewise, the Colombian Diaspora in Ecuador is another example of compliance with Anderson’s theory. For nearly 50 years Colombia has had an internal armed conflict between members of the public government forces and Marxists subversive groups that supposedly are fighting for the lower and oppressed classes by the Colombian oligarchy (Restrepo & Aponte, 2009). Later this conflict deepened even more in the 80s, when drug gangs emerged seeking a way out of poverty, quickly they became very rich due to the export of marijuana and later cocaine (Mejia, 2012).These groups outside the law spread terror in Colombia for many years. Moreover, in the nineties the right-wing extremist groups called paramilitaries emerged, these groups committed crimes against humanity in alleged pursuit of the leftist guerrillas groups (Restrepo & Aponte, 2009). In addition, all this violence has rocked Colombia for nearly 50 years leaving a result the loss of thousands of lives, displacement of others from their hometowns and many of them have had to leave Colombia to seek refuge and political asylum in other countries to save their lives. The main country where Colombians have sought refuge has been Ecuador (Suarez & Ochoa, 2013).

Fourthly, official data from the Office of the United Nations for refugees in Ecuador, says that more than 170,965 Colombians have sought refuge in the South American country (Ecuador, 2016). However, the Ecuadorian state has only granted refugee status to 60,000 Colombians (Ecuador, 2016). In contrast, if this number is added to other Colombian residents in Ecuador, then one could say that the total of Colombians living in Ecuador amounts to about 250,000. Consequently, this Colombian population in Ecuador make up the largest diaspora in that country (ACNUR, 2015). It is interesting that Ecuador and Colombia are two brotherly countries, which in an earlier time were only one country. In fact, today they share the same language, the same colour on their national flags and the customs of the two countries are very similar. Therefore, it should be normal for Colombians and Ecuadorians to have excellent relationships. Unfortunately, this is not the case, because the Colombians and Ecuadorians do not enjoy much socialising between them (èPor qué nos odian en Ecuador?, 2009). Colombian residents in Ecuador are often discriminated against and publicly derided by Ecuadorians (Universo, 2013). Also, a person having the Colombian citizenship faces social problems and traumas (Wessel & Bellessimo, 2015). For instance, many stores refuse to sell food to Colombians (Wessel & Bellessimo, 2015). Ecuadorians do not want to rent rooms and flats to them and normally, employers do not hire Colombians in their companies, the few Colombians hired are occupationally exploited by a squalid salary that often do not receive (Wessel & Bellessimo, 2015). In addition to the above, on April 8, 2008 two Colombians were burned alive in Ecuador by a crowd of Ecuadorians accusing them of criminals (Ayala, 2008).

This figures have been removed for copyright reasons.

Figure 1. A Colombian protesting in Ecuador with a sign on his back that says "I am Colombian, not a criminal" (Universo, 2013)

Figure 2. Two Colombians were burned alive in Ecuador accused of criminals (Ayala, 2008)

All thing described above shows a clear compliance with the theories of Anderson and Appadurai, because the attitude of Ecuadorians towards the Colombian and vice versa. The evidence suggests that both of this communities are convinced about being part of an imaginary nation that rejects members of the other imaginary nation, and consequently they repudiate each other (Wessel & Bellessimo, 2015). Clearly, in the past when Colombia and Ecuador were only one nation, these differences and social prejudices did not exist among its members, but later, when Ecuador was politically separated from Colombia, it became an independent nation with “imaginary” boundaries. This political separation occurred on May 13, 1830, when a court of prominent people from the south of Colombia region, met in Quito, to make an agreement on political separation from the Gran Colombia and build a free and independent state (Morales, Labarca, & Ivonne, 2005). Thus, the southern district was completely separated from the Gran Colombia, forming a single government and at that time commanded by General Juan Jose Flores (Morales, Labarca, & Ivonne, 2005). So, the members of both countries were separated as well, because in their minds they were convinced that since that moment they belonged to another nation. Although many of them did not know the borders of the countries, they accepted it as real, but this fact was only in their imaginations.

For this reason, the Colombian Diaspora in Ecuador has created its own identity according to the customs and cultures of Colombia (Papademetriou & Swing, 2012). It is evident that they feel they belong to Colombia, also they firmly believe that Colombia is the best country in the world and that there is no other nation or country like that. It could be argued that these statements from members of the Colombian Diaspora in Ecuador allow clearly to see the application of the above theories. For example, it is not logical that a Colombian who knows only one, two or three cities of his country, affirms that Colombia is the best country in the world when he has not been to every country in the world. Similarly, he cannot make a fair comparison between his country and the other countries of the world, because if he does not know well his own country, then cannot state that his country is the best. But because he was born over there and has adopted the local culture, he feels that belongs to the best nation in the world, an imagined nation that he knows very little, however, he accepts it as real and existing.

Fifthly, the Colombian Diaspora in the United States of America is another example that demonstrates that Diasporas create identity according to the theories of Anderson and Appadurai. To illustrate, more than six million of Colombians are living abroad, of which three million live in the United States of America, this is the largest source of South American immigration to the country. According to the Foundation-Aspen (20015). The largest Colombian Diasporas in the United States are in New York and Miami. Colombians can live in Miami without substantially changing their lifestyles, there are plenty of Colombian products available at places such as the south Florida supermarkets (Collier, Gamarra, Casey, & Felizzola, 2003). Likewise, in that area the number of Colombian restaurants is increasing and dance, music, arts and cultural activities in Miami are similar to those performed in Colombia. Even, Colombian magazines, newspapers, TV programs, and Spanish-language radio stations networks are available in South Florida. "These factors, combined with the dominant Spanish language and existing social networks of family and friends, allow Colombians to live almost identical lives to the way they did in their home state" (Collier, Gamarra, Casey, & Felizzola, 2003, p. 5).

It is obviously true that Colombian Diaspora in the United States experiences a better lifestyle compared to the Colombian Diaspora in Ecuador. No doubt that the Colombian diaspora in the United States should feel like living in their own country. However, this does not happen because this Colombian Diaspora has adopted its own identity that prevents give up their own socio-cultural roots (Cohen, Story, & Moon, 2015). Therefore, although in the USA they experience a much better lifestyle than Colombia, they never give up their homeland because they feel they belong to Colombia the country where they were born and raised.

To sum up, originally the word Diaspora was used to describe the expulsion of Jews from Judea. But nowadays it is used to describe communities of migrants around the world. Every Diaspora has their own identity and this fact is explained by the theories of Anderson and Appadurai. As an illustration, Anderson says that the word "nation” is “an imagined political community and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign”. And Appadurai affirms that global culture is composed in five "scapes". We may conclude, therefore, that the words of Anderson and Appadurai can be applied to the Colombian Diasporas in Ecuador and in the United States, because it is demonstrated by facts such as when the Colombian soccer team plays in the United States or in Ecuador, Colombians attend the stadium dressing Colombian sports shirts and waving flags of their country. Moreover, each year Colombians in all countries of the world gather to celebrate the July 20th, the day of the independence of Colombia. That nationalist spirit they show in those events is a clear reflection of compliance with the theories of Anderson and Appadurai which in my view both theories have equal level of importance.

References

ACNUR. (2015). Mundo en guerra: Tendencias globales. Geneva Switzerland: UNHCR.

Anderson, B. (1983). Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London, England: Verso.

Ayala, M. (2008, April 09). La muerte de dos delicuentes colombianos en Ecuador agrava la relation entre ambos paises. Retrieved from El Mundo: http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2008/04/09/internacional/120770950 8.html

Bauböck, R., & Faist, T. (2010). Diaspora and transnationalism: Concepts, theories and methods. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Amsterdam University Press.

Cohen, R. (2008). Global diaporas an introduction (2nd ed.). New York, US: Routledge.

Cohen, R., Story, J., & Moon, N. (2015). The impact of diasporas. United Kingdom: British Library.

Collier, M., Gamarra, E., Casey, C., & Felizzola, J. (2003). The Colombian diaspora in South Florida. Dallas, US: Florida International University.

Delgado, J. (2013). La Diaspora africana y la sexta region de la Union Africana: Oportunidades y desafios para Colombia. Bogota, Colombia: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de Colombia.

Ecuador. (2016). Retrieved from UNHCR-ACNUR.ORG: http://www.acnur.org/t3/donde-trabaja/america/ecuador/

Foundation-Aspen, R. (2015). The Colombian Diaspora in the United States. USA: Migration Policy Institute.

H. Im, C., & Yong, A. (2014). Global Diasporas and Mission. Oxford, England: British Library.

Lie, R. (2002). Espacios de comunicacion intercultural. Brussels, Belgium: Universidad Catolica de Bruselas.

Mejia, W. (2012). Colombia y las migraciones internationales: Evolution reciente y panorama actual a partir de las cifras. Pereira, Colombia: Universidad Tecnologica de Pereira.

Morales, J. C., Labarca, L., & Ivonne, A. (2005). La Gran Colombia: algunos intentos reintegradores después de 1830. Revista de Artes y Humanidades UNICA, 149-173.

Papademetriou, D., & Swing, W. L. (2012). Developing a road map for engaging diasporas in development: A handbook for policymakers and practitioners in home and host countries. Geneva, Italy: International Organization for Migration & Migration Policy Institute.

Por qué nos odian en Ecuador? (2009, February 7). Retrieved from Semana: http://www.semana.com/nacion/articulo/por-que-odian- ecuador/99911-3

Restrepo, J., & Aponte, D. (2009). Guerra y violencia en Colombia: Herramientas e interpretaciones. Bogota, Colombia: Universidad Javeriana.

Robinson, A. (2011, April 22). An A-Z of theory Arjun Appadurai. Retrieved from Ceasefire: https://ceasefiremagazine.co.uk/in-theory-appadurai/

Suarez, F., & Ochoa, W. M. (2013). Diaspora y mercado de trabajo en Colombia: una mirada pensando en el retorno voluntario. Madrid, Spain: Fundacion Internacional y para Iberoamérica de Administracion y Politicas.

Universo, E. (2013, August 20). Colombianos demandan no ser estigmatizados ni discriminados. Retrieved from El Universo: http://www.eluniverso.com/noticias/2013/08/20/nota/1317386/colombi anos-demandan-no-ser-estigmatizados-ni-discriminados

Wessel, J., & Bellessimo, T. (2015). Situation socioeconomica de la poblacion migrante colombiana en las ciudades de Tulcan e Ibarra. Quito, Ecuador: Pastoral Social Caritas.

CHAPTER THREE

Collaborative teams, the key to achieving successful projects

Nowadays most of the companies around the globe implement projects to achieve their business goals, but to achieve those successful business projects it is necessary to have work teams in the company (Colquitt, Lepine, & Wesson, 2015). For example, in the United States the majority of companies are using teams in their projects, regardless the organisation is small or large (Colquitt, Lepine, & Wesson, 2015). Furthermore, some surveys and researches have shown that the most important organisations in America are implementing the use of teams, for this reason it is common that 50 per cent of their workers are part of a team (Colquitt, Lepine, & Wesson, 2015; Dwyer, 2013; Ellis, 2009; Newman & Ober, 2013). The complexity and scale of some business projects require to be executed by qualified personnel and is here when it is necessary to form a team that can be able to successfully run these projects. A complex project could not be executed by a single person, teamwork is required ( Dwyer, 2013). On the other hand, the simple fact of having a team does not automatically guarantee the success of the project, there are many factors to take into account to achieve success, so it is essential to have a collaborative team (Sinclair, 2013).

The objective of this literature review is to describe the rise of teamwork as a popular organizational operating model in companies around the world, which had its origin in modern times after World War II, with the purpose of increasing business productivity and efficiency. So, this literature review will respond to the following five questions: Why are teams thought to be so effective? Where did this “movement” come from? What is 'collaboration', really? What is required to achieve it? Finally, why is collaboration essential in high-performing teams?

The first question to respond is why teams are thought to be so effective? It is evident that a team is a group of people that work together with the same objective to achieve a business goal (Dwyer, 2013; Sinclair, 2013; Glassop, 2002; Newman & Ober, 2013; Samson, Catley, Cathro, & Daft, 2012). One of the main reasons of team's effectiveness is that often its members come from different backgrounds, said, culture, education, tradition, age, etc (Samson, Catley, Cathro , & Daft, 2012). Therefore, diversity of ideas, skills for sorting issues and performance, results on a bigger range of options and improvement of quality on the decision-making process ( Dwyer, 2013). For instance, Microsoft recruits the best programming engineers from different countries in the world to design their Windows operating system. As a result, 85% of worldwide computers are using this operating system(Halsey, 2015; Pena, 2013). This example shows that the success of the Microsoft's operating system is due to the engineer teams formed by people with different backgrounds that have worked hard to design more than 80'000'000 of programming codes that this operational system possesses (Halsey, 2015). No doubt that teamwork diversity from Microsoft has permitted to Windows operating system became the “best” and most popular OS in the world (Pena, 2013).

The same case could be applied to companies like Google, Apple and Facebook; each year these companies recruit staff from different countries to carry out their projects (Beebe & Mottet, 2013). This kind of projects involves people from different culture and backgrounds to enable companies to have success in their business. According to Dwyer (2013), the fast increases in globalisation make it necessary that team members and leaders continue interacting with people of different religions, genders, ethnicity, race, etc. in order to achieve successful business projects. Likewise, Newman & Ober (2013, p. 51), argue that “diversity among employees provides richness and strength for an organization. People from varied backgrounds and perspectives help companies solve problems, make better decisions, and create a much more interesting work environment”.

A second reason, of the team’s effectiveness, is that increase business productivity (Glassop, 2002). This increasing of productivity is a valuable benefit provided by teams in the companies that results in improvement on the quality of products and services. Similary, Colquitt, Lepine & Wesson (2015), affirm that with the objective to carry out all kind of business processes and projects, many companies and organisations are using teams to achieve successfully their goals. For example, some small teams are created with the purpose of solving business problems related to quality and control (Glassop, 2002). The solutions implemented by the teams in this area of quality control circles permit the companies to increase the quality and quantity of their products (Insley, 2014). Consequently, increase the productivity and revenue of the company. Indeed, team working has a positive impact on four dimensions of performance and effectiveness, such as attitudinal, behavioural, operational and financial (Delarue, Hootegem, Procter, & Burridge, 2008).

The final reason that explains why people think teams are so effective is that many organisations have a variety of teams to execute their business process and projects (Colquitt, Lepine, & Wesson, 2015). In fact, today the expression 'teamwork' is very popular, and most of the companies require that their future employees can be able to work as a part of a team (Ellis, 2009). The evidence suggests that teamwork skill is a valuable quality to find employment in most of the organisations. Hence, without this skill could be difficult to be hired by an organisation. On the other hand, it is important to know where this 'teamwork' expression comes from, and how this term became very common.

The second question to respond is where did this “movement" come from? The broadcasting of teamwork has increased over the past 40 years (Weiss & Hoegl, 2015). Weiss & Hoegl (2015) have described the trajectory of teamwork as a diffusion that has gained much popularity since World Wars I and II, they affirm that:

The unique trajectory of the trend line suggests that the teamwork concept became increasingly important in times of major war. Specifically, during World Wars I and II, the trend line reflects a sharply increasing societal diffusion of teamwork. This increasing importance of teamwork in wartime might stem from the perceived need and desire for social cohesion in such times, just as intergroup conflict is likely to foster intragroup cohesion (Benard & Doan, 2011). (p. 600).

Consequently, the diffusion of teamwork became more popular after World War II, and this concept continued to expand globally until the 1960s (Weiss & Hoegl, 2015). However, during the 1960s, this concept of teamwork had not a great diffusion in societal, and the same trend occurred during the decade of the 1970s (Weiss & Hoegl, 2015). After that, the concept experimented a real comeback in the early 1980s and started its development. For example, in areas traditionally characterized by individual work processes, the organizational operating model of teamwork was implemented to replace individual work (Weiss & Hoegl, 2015). Afterwards, from the 1990s until now the movement of teamwork has continued increasing (Weiss & Hoegl, 2015).

Although Weiss & Hoegl (2015) explain the history of teamwork's social diffusion, they did not describe where exactly this ‘movement’ comes from. In contrast, Takada (1999) and Crainer (1998) provide a better understanding of it. For instance, Takada (1999) argues that ‘teamwork’ as a popular organizational operating model had its origins in modern times after World War II in Japan. So, Takada (1999) wrote:

The rapid economic growth in Japan from the beginning of the 1950s to the early 1970s did not only resulted from special government policies and revolutionary events but were also achieved by the cumulative effort and hard work by the people. The unique characteristic and ability of the Japanese people to imitate and improve the skills learned, and then applying them to their own system was the most important factor for their successes. (p. 12).

It is obviously true that the hard work performed by the Japanese teams contributed to Japan’s miraculous economic recovery after its devastation during World War II.

In the same way, Crainer (1998) said that in 1947 General MacArthur invited to Dr W Edwards Deming to come to Japan. Once there, Deming encouraged the development of Japanese industry in a short time. Further, he promoted the implementation of quality control to Japanese industrialists. In addition, Deming was possibly the only person in the world that trusted in the industrial and economic recovery of Japan (Crainer, 1998). Deming encourages replacing individual work for teamwork and encouraged the Japanese to share responsibility for achieving their industrial objectives; this ideology took root in the hearts of the Japanese and finally this thought contributed to the economic and industrial development of Japan (Crainer, 1998). In fact, according to Crainer’s words (1998, p. 43): “The Japanese were highly receptive to Deming’s message. His timing was right the country was desperate and willing to try anything. But, much more importantly, Deming’s message of teamwork and shared responsibility struck a chord with Japanese culture”. This industrial and economic recovery of Japan after its devastation during World War II is worldwide known as the Japanese Miracle (Forsberg, 2000). We may conclude, therefore, that this teamwork concept came from Japan after World War II, promoted by Dr W Edwards Deming when he was in Japan.

What is 'collaboration', really? This is the third question to respond. Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries (2016) defines ‘collaboration’ as “the act of working with another person or group of people to create or produce something”. The evidence demonstrates that collaboration means ‘teamwork’. Further, collaboration etymology conveys a clear idea of teamwork. The next figure (figure 1) shows the etymology of the word ‘collaboration’.

This figure has been removed for copyright reasons.

Figure 1: Etymology of the word "Collaboration". (OXFORD, 2016).

It could be argued that effective collaboration involves communication. Even, teamwork requires a good communication skill by each team member. For this reason, Sinclair (2013) states, that the best support for collaboration within a team project is to guarantee that all team member has a strong communication skill. In addition, Sinclair (2013) says that good communication in a team includes respect for the ideas of each team member. It is obvious that in order to achieve the above mentioned it is necessary to be a skilled listener and pay careful attention when a team member is expressing their views and suggestions on the project. Actually, it is essential to encourage team members to feel free to express their opinions. Contrary to this, if the team does not have open communication and lack of mutual understanding, then the project cannot be successfully carried out.

Like Sinclair (2013), Beebe & Mottet (2013) affirm that clear communication promotes collaboration. In other words, effective communication is equal to collaboration. Therefore, no communication means not collaboration. The importance of team collaboration is illustrated by Beebe & Mottet (2013) and Colquitt, Lepine, & Wesson (2015). They use the same example of a medical-surgical team, which is working together in surgery to achieve a determined objective. This teamwork involves coordination between team members and total collaboration as well. So this suitable illustration used by them, permit to see the enormous importance that teamwork has, because, if this medical team does not provide the maximum support during the surgery process, the patient could die, and the medical team would be guilty and accused of acting negligently. On the other hand, they may achieve success during the surgery if cooperate with each other in the medical team Besides it, in modern times, teamwork has evolved to the point of not being absolutely necessary to have a face-to-face meeting with team members. Actually, the team members can be in different countries and even so hold virtual meetings. Thus, this kind of team is known as 'virtual teams' (Beebe & Mottet, 2013). Virtual teams are an example of collaboration because this skill is essential for the proper functioning of the virtual team. For instance, virtual teams interact via electronic channels such as video conferences, emails and phone calls. Also, applications and social media like, Facebook, Skype, WhatsApp, Google and Microsoft tools can be used for virtual team’s members to successfully perform their tasks. Therefore, ‘collaboration’ requires that each team member has his own device to share information, ideas and suggestions about the business project; to support this point of view, Beebe & Mottet (2013) affirm that, personal devices such as cell phones, laptops and tablets are good tools to communicate among team members at any time and no matter if they are not at the same country or area. Further, a point to highlight is that this kind of communication allows them fast interacting. It could be claimed that 'collaboration', really, involves providing, supporting and sharing, this is what is expected from every team member. So, through good communication, each team member should contribute and share opinions, ideas, thoughts and skills to support team working (Cook , 2013).

The fourth question to respond in this literature review is what is required to achieve team collaboration? First of all, it is essential or crucial to organize a suitable team, and it is necessary to follow the appropriate steps regarding the formation of a team. For example, according to Ellis (2009), there are five stages in the formation of the team, which are: Forming stage . This stage is characterized because in it the status, transition from individual to team member take place, considering their roles or influence within the team; also, leader's drivability is tested (Ellis, 2009). Storming stage. In this stage conflicts and disagreements can arise among team members. But teamwork involves negotiating personal interests, be available to cede in some aspects to solve those issues (Ellis, 2009). Norming stage. At this stage, team members begin to feel part of the team stronger than at the beginning, developing a sense of unity. The rules set out are those related to the regulation of the behaviour of team members, the achievement of objectives and solving personal problems (Ellis, 2009). Performing stage . During this stage, the team begin to achieve the objectives. Also, social relations have been developed and there is a great sense of commitment to the team. In addition, members have already discovered the strengths and weaknesses of others and the team has the ability to prevent obstacle or work through them. So, the objectives are reached and the members feel pride and satisfied (Ellis, 2009). Adjourning stage: In this final stage the team ends their hard work and the project closes (Ellis, 2009).

Another aspect that leads to the achievement of team collaboration is to define roles and responsibilities (Ellis, 2009). But it is vital to assign the right role to the right person (Beebe & Mottet, 2013). Therefore, knowledge of the team members, enables a more balanced and effective development, not only from the standpoint of preparation and degree of knowledge, but also for the contribution to the team from their individual skills (Insley, 2014); This means that each team member should have a clear understanding of what to do, when and how to do it (Ellis, 2009; Beebe & Mottet, 2013; & Insley, 2014; Cook, 2013). Moreover, goals, objectives, scopes and strategies must be clear in their minds in order to be able to collaborate with each other. On the other hand, if a team member is not sure about what to do and how to do it, then he cannot supportive to the team and his collaboration may be very poor (Insley, 2014). However, to achieve the exposed above, effective communication is required by all team members (Sinclair, 2013), this type of communication includes listening carefully, asking useful questions, providing feedbacks, handling conflicts resolution and providing a positive influence to the team members ( Dwyer, 2013). Furthermore, team collaboration is based on three aspects which are: High performance, individual satisfaction and the ability to learn and adapt (Samson, Catley, Cathro , & Daft, 2012).

A final requirement to achieve team collaboration is to have an excellent relationship between team members (Floyd, 2011). When team members have a good relation between them, they find it easier to cooperate each other, and this, in turn, will produce a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction in their work that encourages them to continue working much more even, in other words, good relations between teammates affects the quality of their collaboration and performance within the team (Floyd, 2011). Categorically it could be argued that qualities such as respect for teammate views, consideration, empathy, kindness, appreciation and humility, contribute significantly to the management of good interpersonal relations and thus reciprocal collaboration and altruistic among team members.

The final question to respond is: Why is collaboration essential in high- performing teams? In a high performing team, there are highly skilled members that can easily perform any role in the team, normally this kind of teams generate superior results (Thiel, 2009). People who work in a high-level team are required to give the maximum potential in their projects, these demands results and pressures increase the team's knowledge, but also stress (Wiese & Ricci, 2012). Because of the great responsibility, demands and pressures that have a high-level team, excellent cooperation among its members is absolutely necessary. Otherwise, they could not achieve their goals, and although its members are highly qualified, much collaboration is needed to reach success (Wiese & Ricci, 2012). The complexity of some business projects demands a high-performing team to execute it. Thus, it is evident that, in a high-performing team, superior collaboration is a more important requirement than personal skills.

To sum up, this literature review has shown the benefits associated with teamwork. Also has described that due to projects complexity, many companies are using teams to execute successfully their projects. Even prominent companies in the world like Microsoft, Google, Apple, Facebook and others have economically grown thanks to teamwork diversity because members come from different backgrounds, said, culture, education, tradition and age. These described features have provided unmatched value to teamwork. In this way, this research has given reasons why are teams thought to be so effective. In addition, the historical framework of teamwork described in this article has left see that teamwork as a popular organizational operating model, had its origins in modern times after War World II in Japan. As is known, Japan had a miraculous economic recovery after its devastation of War World II. But W. Edwards Deming encouraged the use of QCs in teamwork. So, teams were focused on quality. After that, this literature review has explained the influence of collaboration in a team and what is required to achieve this kind of collaboration. Finally, this research has discovered the enormous value of collaboration in high- performing teams, as this type of collaboration is very essential in this kind of team.

In conclusion, this literature review has found that 'collaborative teams’ are the key to achieve successful business projects. However, teamwork evolved over the years, and today with the advancement of Information Technology, it will keep increasingly developing the work in virtual teams. But what are the pros and cons of working in virtual teams? What are the risks associated with sharing confidential information in the virtual team? Will disappear someday face-to-face teamwork? These are questions that arise for future research on the topic of teamwork.

[...]

• Université: UNITEC New Zealand (Massey University)
• Note: 8.5
• Auteur: Alfredo Jose Lopez Severiche (Auteur)
• Année de publication: 2022
• Pages: 172
• N° de catalogue: V1297839
• ISBN (PDF): 9783346793157
• ISBN (Livre): 9783346793164
• Langue: anglais
• mots-clé: international, development, communication, describing, social, issues