The objectives of the research were (1) to assess level of use of soil conservation measures by small holder farmers, (2) to identify the factors that influence small holder farmers to participate in soil conservation activities and (3) to identify most commonly used indigenous and improved soil conservation techniques.
Multistage sampling procedure was employed for the realization of the research objectives. In the first stage the research area was selected purposively for geographic and economic advantage convenience. In the second stage three sample kebeles were selected by stratifying based on agro ecology then purposively in consideration of their accesability. In the third stage a total of 150 sample respondents were selected by simple random sampling based on PPS. Structured interview schedule was developed, pre-tested and used for collecting the essential data for the study from the sampled households. Focus group discussions and key informant interviews were also conducted to generate qualitative. Descriptive statistics was used to describe the nature of data by indicating the significance of the relationship between dependent variable and independent variable. Binary logit model was used to determine the relative influence of independent variables on the dependent variable.
The result of descriptive statistics revealed that out of the total sample respondents 63.3% were adopters and 36.7% of them were non-adopters. It also indicated that in the study area, livestock holding, family size, education, age, participation in training of soil and water conservation, farm income, social position, Number of economically active labor, land size, frequency of extension contact, perception of ownership of land and slope were found to be significantly affecting adoption of soil and water conservation technology by farmers.
The model result revealed that education of head of household, farm income of the household, frequency of extension contact, number of economically active labour in the household and perception on ownership of land were found positively and significantly affect adoption of soil and water conservation structures. While sex of head of household and age of head of household were negatively and significantly related with adoption of soil and water conservation technology by farmers. Thus, consideration of those variables would help to improve adoption of physical soil and water conservation technology among farm households.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BIOGRAPHY
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES IN APPENDIX
ABSTRACT
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1.2 Statement of the Problem
1.3 Objective of the Study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Scope and Limitation of the study
1.6 Significance of the Study
1.7 Organization of the Thesis
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Definition of Concepts
2.2 Theoretical Background of Soil Conservation
2.3 Soil Conservation Practices in Ethiopia
2.4 Soil Conservation Policies in Ethiopia
2.5 Empirical Study
2.6 Conceptual Framework
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Description of the Study Area
3.1.1 Location
3.1.2 Geographic clasification
3.1.3 Climate
3.2 Types of Data and Method of Data Collection
3.2.1 Primary data
3.2.2 Secondary data
3.3 Sampling Techniques
3.3.1 Sample size
3.3.2 Sampling procedures
3.4 Methods of Data Analysis
3.4.1 Descriptive statistics
3.4.2 Econometric model
3.5 Definition of Variables and Hypothesis
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Level of Adoption of Improved Soil and Water conservation Practices
4.2 Background Information of the Respondents
4.2.1 Sex of the household head (SEXHHS):
4.2.2 Educational status of the household head (EDUCHH)
4.2.3 Age of the household head (AGEHHS):
4.2.4 Family size (FAMSIZE):
4.2.5 Labour availability (ACTLAB)
4.3 Farming system and farm characteristics
4.3.1 Livestock ownership (TLU):
4.3.2 Farm income of the house hold (FARMINC)
4.3.3 Land size (LANDSIZE)
4.3.4 Slope of the land holding (SLOPLND):
4.3.5 Non-farm activity (NONFACT):
4.4 Perception of Farmers
4.4.1 Perception on the effect of Soil Erosion (PERERO)
4.4.2 Perception on the ownership of Land (PEROWN)
4.5 Social Variable
4.5.1 Social position (SOCPOS)
4.6 Institutional variables
4.6.1 Training (PARTRING):
4.6.2 Access to credit (ACCCRED):
4.6.3 Distance of Extension Offices (FTCs) from household residence (FTCDIST)
4.6.4 Frequency of Extension agents contact (FREQEXT)
4.7 Use of Soil Conservation Measures
4.7.1 Use of Indigenous Soil Conservation Structures
4.7.2 Improved Soil Conservation Practices
4.8 Summary of the Results of Descriptive Analysis
4.9 Econometric Analysis of Determinants of Adoption of SWC Practices
5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary and Conclusions
5.2 Recommendations
6. REFERENCES
7. APPENDICES
7.1 Appendix A Appendix Tables
7.2 Appendix B Questions for focus group discussion
7.3 Appendix C Interview schedule
DEDICATION
I dedicate this thesis manuscript to my beloved wife Werkinesh Jemal (Werk) for her moral and Financial Support.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ATA Agricultural Transformation Agency
EPA Environmental Protection Authority
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FFW Food for Work
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GO Government Organizations
Ha Hectare
ITPS Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils
Km Kilo meters
Masl Meters above sea level
MWANRO Meskan Woreda Agriculture and Natural Resource Office
MWFEDO Meskan Woreda Finance and Economic Development Office
NGO Non Governmental Organizations
PA Peasant Associations
SLM Sustainable Land Management
SNNPR Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region
SWC Soil and Water Conservation
TLU Total Livestock Units
UN United Nations
USAID United States Aid for International Development
USD United States Dollar
WFP World Food Program
BIOGRAPHY
The author, Eskinder Mengesha, was born on April 11, 1981 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. He attended his primary, junior and secondary school education at Robe Elementary Junior Secondary and Didea secondary school respectively in Oromia Regional State, Arsi Zone, Robe Woreda. After completing his secondary school education, he joined Addis Ababa University in 1999/2000 and graduated with B.A in Geography and Environmental Studies in 2004.Then he served in government office as an expert for 2 years and in non government project as a teacher. For further education he joined Ethiopia Adventist College in 2008 and graduated with B.A in Community Development and Leadership. After that he served at different positions in different projects in NGO setup. He joined School of Graduate Studies (SGS) of Wolaita Sodo University to pursue his study in Rural Development and Planning in the department of Rural Development and Agricultural Extension.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank the almighty GOD as all things are through Him, for Him and to Him is glory forever.
I would like to express my gratitude to my major advisor Tekle Leza (PhD) for his valuable advice, insight and frequent guidance starting from the beginning of proposal development to the completion of the research work. He worked hard to keep me on the right track and timely completion of the study.
I am grateful to farmers of Meskan woreda who responded to all questions with patience and gave necessary information for this research work. I would like also to thank Meskan woreda Agriculture and Natural Resources Development Office for providing me with all the relevant secondary information.
I also remain thankful to the enumerators, who assisted me in data collection with patience, commitment and dedication.
I also extend my gratitude to my classmates at Wolaita Soddo University for their optimistic cooperation.
Finally I would like to express my deepest thanks to my family, my wife Werkinesh Jemal and my two Daughters (Hawinet and Dagmit) for their unreserved encouragement, moral and material support during my study.
HONOR TO ALMIGHTY GOD!
LIST OF TABLES
1 Variables definition and Hypothesis
2 Variables definition and Hypothesis
3 The Distribution of the Respondents by Adoption Categories
4 The Sample Household on Adoption Intensity by Sex
5 Distribution of Sample Respondents by Age, Family size and Labour size
6 Distribution of sample Respondents by TLU, Farm income and Land Size
7 The Distribution of Sample Household by Slop of the Land and engagement in nonfarm activity
8 The Distribution of Sample Households by Perception to ownership of land and Effect of Erosion
9 The Distribution of Sample Households by Social Position
10 The Distribution of Sample Households by Training, Credit Access & FTC Distance from Residence
11 Respondents Category by Frequency of extension
12 Use of Indigenous Soil Conservation Structures
13 Improved SWC Practices in the study area
14 Summary of Results of Continuous Independent Variables
15 Summary of the Results of Categorical and Dummy Explanatory Variables
16 Result of Binary logit regression model
LIST OF FIGURES
1 Conceptual Framework
2. Map of the study area
3 Sampling procedure
LIST OF TABLES IN APPENDIX
1 Conversion Factors Used to Compute TLU
2 VIF of the Continuous Explanatory Variables
3 Contingency Coefficient of Dummy Explanatory Variables
ADOPTION OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION PRACTICES AMONG SMALLHOLDER FARMERS : THE CASE OF MESKAN WOREDA, GURAGHE ZONE, SNNPR, ETHIOPIA
ABSTRACT
The objectives of the research were (1) to assess level of use of soil conservation measures by small holder farmers, (2) to identify the factors that influence small holder farmers to participate in soil conservation activities and (3) to identify most commonly used indigenous and improved soil conservation techniques. Multistage sampling procedure was employed for the realization of the research objectives. In the first stage the research area was selected purposively for geographic and economic advantage convenience. In the second stage three sample kebeles were selected by stratifying based on agro ecology then purposively in consideration of their accesability. In the third stage a total of 150 sample respondents were selected by simple random sampling based on PPS. Structured interview schedule was developed, pre-tested and used for collecting the essential data for the study from the sampled households. Focus group discussions and key informant interviews were also conducted to generate qualitative. Descriptive statistics was used to describe the nature of data by indicating the significance of the relationship between dependent variable and independent variable. Binary logit model was used to determine the relative influence of independent variables on the dependent variable. The result of descriptive statistics revealed that out of the total sample respondents 63.3% were adopters and 36.7% of them were non-adopters. It also indicated that in the study area, livestock holding, family size, education, age, participation in training of soil and water conservation, farm income, social position, Number of economically active labor, land size, frequency of extension contact, perception of ownership of land and slope were found to be significantly affecting adoption of soil and water conservation technology by farmers. The model result revealed that education of head of household, farm income of the household, frequency of extension contact, number of economically active labour in the household and perception on ownership of land were found positively and significantly affect adoption of soil and water conservation structures. While sex of head of household and age of head of household were negatively and significantly related with adoption of soil and water conservation technology by farmers. Thus, consideration of those variables would help to improve adoption of physical soil and water conservation technology among farm households.
Key words: soil and water conservation, Adoption,Binary Logit, Meskan, Ethiopia.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Soil is the most fundamental and basic resource since humans cannot survive without it because it is the basis of all terrestrial life. Soil is a vital resource that provides food, feed, fuel, and fiber. It underpins food security and environmental quality, both essential to human existence. Essentiality of soil to human well-being is often not realized until the production of food drops or is jeopardized when the soil is severely eroded or degraded to the level that it loses its inherent texture and resilience. Soil is a non-renewable resource over the human time scale. It is dynamic and prone to rapid degradation with land misuse. Water and wind erosion are two main agents that degrade soils. Control and management of soil erosion are important because when the fertile topsoil is eroded away the remaining soil is less fertile and it becomes less productive consequently. Accelerated erosion is as old as agriculture.
The productivity of agricultural economy, which is the back bone of the country economy, is being seriously eroded by unsustainable land management practices both in areas of food crops and in grazing lands ( Derejaw et.al, 2013 ). Agriculture is the mainstay of Ethiopia's economy and it accounts for over 46% of GDP, provide 85 % to total employment, 90% to the foreign exchange earnings and provide 70% of raw materials requirement of countries industry (ATA, 2014). Owing to this fact, economic development of the country is extremely dependent on the performance of agricultural sector. Although other factors like shortage of rainfall and poor land management are the principal contributing factor to the low and declining agricultural productivity in Ethiopia, which is explained by the loss of soil fertility (FAO, 2000; Bayramin et.al, 2002). The resultant effect of land degradation can be detected by the decline of crop yields, decline of water and forest resources and by gully formation across the grazing and ploughing fields.
Land degradation is believed to be the direct result due to population pressure, poverty, limited access to agricultural inputs, information and credits, low productivity of agricultural production practices, fragmented and insecure land holdings ( Derejaw, et.al 2013).
Environmental and natural resource degradation is a major concern in Ethiopia, because of its devastating consequences on economic growth and food security status of the people which are both highly dependent on natural resources. One of the greatest challenges of the national economy is related to the problem of environment. The most severe environmental problems in Ethiopia usually is found in densely populated areas, where land degradation involves loss of both vegetation and soil biodiversity (EPA, 2012). According to Kassu (2011) the most serious problem concerning country's land resource, however, is the removal of fertile topsoil by water. This is much more severe in the highlands where, 85% of the human and 77% of livestock population are living and agriculture is intensive.
The problems of land degradation and low agricultural productivity, which results in food insecurity and poverty, are particularly severe in the rural highlands of Ethiopia that constitute 95% of the cultivable area in the country and that support 88% of the human and 75% of the livestock population. Land degradation is a great threat to the future agricultural productivity and it requires great effort to protect resources. The rapid population growth, severe soil loss, deforestation, low vegetative cover and unbalanced crop and livestock production are the major causes of land degradation in Ethiopia (Derejaw et.al, 2013). Land degradation reduced food production and even created unproductiveness in some parts of the country. Land degradation at the household level has resulted in economic loss (food, pasture, and fuel wood) and it also has social consequence where farmers are forced to migrate to other areas, which would result in displacement of the household member (Addisu et al, 2015).
According to Bekele and Holden ,1998, Cited in Derajew Fentie, et.al, 2013, soil erosion in Ethiopia is not a new phenomenon. It is as old as the history of agriculture itself. However, the problem attracted policy attention only after the devastating famine problem in 1973/74 and 1984/85. Prior to, 1974 the conservation of agricultural land was largely neglected due to the singular dominance of policy to favor industrial growth over that of agriculture.
Degradation of arable land due to soil erosion is a wide spread phenomenon in the highland of the country, which share about 45% of Ethiopia's total land area. On steep slopes, estimated annual rate of soil erosion is about 114.59 tons /ha/year. Productivity in the agricultural sector has been slowed down due to land resource degradation, particularly soil erosion by water and unfavorable climatic condition. Human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, and over cultivation of steep slopes and marginal lands could be consistently identified as the major cause for vicious circle of land degradation, drought, famine and chronic poverty in Ethiopia (Mushir and Kedru, 2012).
Aware of these problems, soil and water conservation technologies were implemented in many parts of the highlands during the 1970s and 1980s. They were introduced in some degraded and food deficit areas mainly through food for work incentives. Major types of the structure that introduced were structural types and constructed on crop lands (Mesfin, 2015). However, reports indicated that these conservation structures have not been adopted and sustainably used by farmers as they intended because farmers were not eager enough to adopt in large scale and maintaining the soil conservation technology due to the top-down approach and other technical problems (Mesfin , 2015).
To overcome the problem of land degradation on agricultural productivity, Ethiopia has made efforts to launch afforestation and conservation programs with the support of both government and non-government organizations; however, success to date has been limited. Income of the farmers is highly dependent on crop and livestock production with a limited off-farm income. However, its production and productivity is highly influenced by soil erosion. Its severity is explained by a decline in productivity, formation of small gullies in both farming and grazing lands through time (Derajew et.al, 2013) .
The limited adoption and spreading of SWC practice is not only due to the above mentioned problem, rather it is due to socioeconomic problem (education level, family size, farm size etc) with many constraints playing a role. Although the failure of soil water conservation intervention can have many causes, it resulted mainly from the fact that planner and implementing agencies ignored local level biophysical and socio-economic realities or fails to consider socio-cultural factors as key determinants of the success and they used ready-made technology distribution without participation of stakeholders'. This is essential as the planning of effective and efficient soil and water conservation technologies that will be accepted by farmers require empirical understanding of divers socio-economic variables that affecting farmers' conservation decision (Genene and Wagayehu, 2010). The objective of this study was to assess the situation of adoption of physical soil and water conservation technologies in the study area.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Land degradation is a great threat for Ethiopia as land is the main resource to achieve Sustainable development. Natural resource degradation in general, and land degradation in particular has great negative effect on the economies of developing country to which Ethiopia is among seriously affected. This is due to the fact that, the country heavily depend on their natural resource for food self sufficient, food security and economic development (Teshome et.al., 2012)
According to studies of Woldeamlak (2007) and Mesele (2010), in some parts of the highlands of Ethiopia has indicated that many parts of the country especially the highlands are seriously affected by land degradation. For instance, the Ethiopian highlands with inherently fertile soil and sufficient rainfall were among places those with highest agricultural potential and they are threatened by accelerating land degradation. Moreover, land degradation mainly caused by soil erosion is a serious problem in Ethiopia, among other things coupled with poverty, fast growing population and policy; land degradation mainly due to soil erosion poses a serious threat to national, regional and household food security and would lead to economic stagnation.
According to Fikru, 2009 in response to extensive degradation of resource base, Ethiopia has taken some measures to reduce the problem of soil erosion and enhance the production potential of its agricultural land. Since early 1980s, soil and water conservation practice have been introduced in some degraded and food deficit area of the highlands, mainly through food for work program supported by world food program (WFP). The soil and water conservation works includes planting trees on hillsides and catchment area, construction of earth dam, pond, terrace and check dams. Likewise, Woldeamlak (2007) pointed out that sustainable adoption of new technology has become a vital concern when farmers began to dismantle structures once the incentives given to farmers discontinued following change in economic policy. He argue that the cause for failures and low adoption of introduced soil and water conservation practice were attributed mainly to non-participatory nature of conservation program, inappropriate conservation technology, discontinuing incentive of food for work and problems related to individual land owner. In similar manner, from field observation land degradation mainly soil erosion by water becomes a serious problem in the study area, Meskan Woreda.
Even though soil and water conservation technologies were promoted by Ministry of Agriculture and concerned non-governmental organization, the extent of adoption of introduced soil and water conservation measures were not looked in to so far in the study area. Therefore, this particular research study was designed and focused on assessing the extent of adoption and tried to identify the factors that influence farmers' decision on the adoption of physical SWC technologies and forwarding possible solutions.
1.3 Objective of the Study
The general objective of the study was to examine the adoption and the determinants of use of soil conservation measures by small holder farmers in the study area. The Specific objectives of the study were:
i. to assess the level of use of soil and water conservation measures by small holder farmers.
ii. to identify the factors that influence small holder farmers to participate in soil and water conservation activities, and
iii. to identify most commonly used indigeneous and improved soil and water conservation techniques in the study area.
1.4 Research Questions
1. What is the level of use soil and water conservation practices of small holder farmers in the woreda?
2. What are the determinants of adoption for improved soil and water conservation practices by small holder farmers?
3. What are the commonly used indegenous and improved soil and water conservation practices in the study area?
1.5 Scope and Limitation of the study
The study is limited in terms of coverage and depth due to financial and time resource limitations. Hence, it is restricted to address the objectives mentioned in this proposal - assessing the determinants of adoption of soil and water conservation practices in the case of Meskan Woreda, Guraghe zone, Southern Ethiopia, Difficulty in getting the required data for the study in the pre-determined schedule is another expected limitation.
1.6 Significance of the Study
This study attempts to assess adoption of physical soil and water conservation technology among farmers in the case of Messkan woreda of Guraghe Zone. Thus, the result of this Study would be used by the policy maker for planning of appropriate programs in response to SWC measures adopted by farm households. Similarly, the findings of this paper could be used by individual researcher, governmental and non-governmental organizations those working in the woreda on agricultural development, particularly soil and water conservation activity to take intervention measures and set appropriate plans to improve soil and water conservation practice among community. This study further could serve as a base for more research with similar concepts elsewhere.
1.7 Organization of the Thesis
This thesis consists of five chapters. Chapter one deals with the background, problem statement, objectives, research questions, significance, scope and limitations of the study, and organization of the thesis. Chapter two reviews literature related to the research topic. Chapter three deals with Methodological issues including the study area description. The fourth chapter presents the results of the study and their interpretation. The final chapter, chapter five summarizes the thesis, concludes and presents recommendations.
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Definition of Concepts
Land degradation can be defined as a process that lowers the current and future capacity of the land to support human life. Land degradation and soil degradation are often used interchangeably. However, land degradation has a broader concept and refers to the degradation of soil, water, climate, and fauna and flora (Behailu et.al, 2009).
Land/soil degradation can either be as a result of natural hazards or due to unsuitable land use and inappropriate land management practices. Natural hazards include land topography and climatic factors such as steep slopes, frequent floods and tornadoes, blowing of high velocity wind, rains of high intensity, strong leaching in humid regions and drought conditions in dry regions. Deforestation of fragile land, over cutting of vegetation, shifting cultivation, overgrazing , unbalanced fertilizer use and non-adoption of soil conservation management practices, over-pumping of ground water (in excess of capacity for recharge) are some of the factors which comes under human intervention resulting in soil erosion (Dominic, 2000).
2.2 Theoretical Background of Soil Conservation
Soil is one of fundamental natural resources to support life on earth. As a core component of land resources, soil is the source of many ecosystem services essential to humans and the environment (Brevik et. al., 2015). It is the base to support primary production through organic matter and nutrient cycling, control of pests and diseases; decontamination of the environment, and provision of ecosystem services (UNCCD, 2013).
Global estimates, however, indicate that human pressures on soil resources are reaching critical limits (FAO & ITPS, 2015) and soil is becoming vulnerable to various forms of depletions, such as soil erosion, soil fertility decline, and associated changes in soil physical and chemical properties. Soil erosion by water is the most severe and widespread that occupies 56% (Gelagay & Minale, 2016).
2.3 Soil Conservation Practices in Ethiopia
Despite on-going land degradation and the urgent need for action to prevent and reverse land degradation, the problem has yet to be appropriately addressed, especially in the developing countries, including in Eastern Africa (Tesfaye, 2017). Identifying the determinants of SLM adoption is a step towards addressing them (Braun, et.al., 2012). There is an urgent need for evidence-based economic evaluations, using more data and robust economic tools, to identify the determinants of adoption as well as economic returns from SLM (Kassie et.al. 2013 ; Tesfa et.al. 2014)
Soil degradation did not get policy attention prior to the 1974 revolution in Ethiopia. Following the famine of 1973 and 1985 the government launched an ambitious program of soil and water conservation. The extent of conservation activities through the use of food aid increased extremely and the conservation practice continue to grow arithmetically through the implementation could not keep the pace with the plan. Up to 1986, food aid used for payment of conservation and related works as food for work payment covers approximately 29% of the total food aid and the other 71% of the food aid was distributed for the emergency food requirement. In line with this Ethiopia become the largest food for work program beneficiary in Africa and the second largest country in the world next to India (Woldeamlak,2007).
The project design for physical SWC expects that the local people cover all cost for the maintenance of physical SWC structures. Yet, farmers have few incentives to maintain or continue with practice of SWC structures. Due to inadequate incentives which farmers get, the continuity of the maintenance of those structures was under questions. Therefore, due to the above reason the maintenance of the existing structures and the practice of new structures were slowly disappeared (ibid).
The huge Campaign in the soil conservation and afforestation, the vast financial and man power investment for food for work does not succeeded as expected in quickly widespread voluntary adoption of the practice by farmers in a sustainable manner or due to solving of the problem related to soil erosion. Due to the downfall of dirge regime and the shift in priority to food for work projects, many farmers have show their voluntary sense for the implementation of soil and water conservation or at least adapt their SWC structures which already constructed in the previous time (Bewket and Ermias,2009.)
2.4 Soil Conservation Policies in Ethiopia
As stated by Abay (2011) , land is the most important resource for people especially for those rural poor and policies related to land plays a great role in land management in Ethiopia.During the feudal regime, prior to 1974 revolution, the land tenure system made the tenant to face land insecurity problem and exploitation of large portion of their product and labor by land lords. These factors brought demoralization for the adoption of soil conservation practice. Furthermore, the agricultural sector in general and peasant agriculture in particular did not get policy attention because of the focus of the country on the agenda of industrial development. The feudal regime has been sent three five year plan in their policy. The first two five year plan (1957-62 and 1962-1967) was gave priority to large scale commercial farm and exportable crop. The third five year plan (1968-1973) gave much emphasis on high input package programs which implemented in a few high potential agro-ecological areas in order to get the expected return quickly as much as possible ( Dejene, 1990).
Several soil and water conservation measures were introduced in the early 1970's to improve land management practices. These projects were supported by development food aid USAID and the World Food Program (WFP). The main activities under those projects were reforestation and soil and water conservation in the drought prone areas of the country. In the 1980s, the WFP consolidated its support to include rehabilitation of forest, grazing and agricultural lands. On government's part, the watershed or catchment approach became it key strategy (Desta, 2012).
In the 1974 the derg regime proclaimed land reform. This reform abolished the land tenure system of feudal regime and avoids issues like large land holding, landlessness and absentee landlordism. Even if the regime expected to improve the situation and provide the incentives to invest on SWC practice, the trigger adoption of conservation practice could not succeeded. This is occurred, because, the reform were later liquidated by misguided policies and focused all in all to socialism idea (Gebresenbet, 2008).
Following the downfall of dirge regime 1991, the Ethiopian people revolutionary democratic front (EPRDF) has made change in economic policy and puts forward requirement of natural resource management together with livestock development. After defining dry areas as places with shortage of rain fall, high natural resource degradation, deforestation and soil degradation and similarly, sloppy area which are cultivated now, it takes into account resettlement as means for natural resource management by decreasing population pressure over the land. It also recommends every activity dealing with natural resource management to address tangible and high benefit to the people by integrating activities like, release sloppy area from cultivation and production of grass and trees which provide forage for livestock, and ensure soil and water conservation. The change which introduced by the current government is going on in opposite direction to that of military regime (Atakltie, 2003).
2.5 Empirical Study
A number of empirical studies have been conducted by different people and institutions on the factors affecting the use of soil conservation practices outside and inside Ethiopia. Use of soil conservation technologies is influenced by a number of interrelated components within the decision environment in which small holder farmers operate. For ease of grouping, the factors identified as having relationship with soil conservation methods use are categorized as household's demographic, economic, social and institutional factors.
Addisu et.al. (2015) employed descriptive statistics to identify determinants of soil and water conservation techniques in Goromti Watershed, Western Ethiopia. They found that slope of the area, contact with extension workers, tenure status, age, size of house hold and training significantly influenced farmers to adopt soil and water conservation methods.
Tsegaye, (2014) employed logit regression to investigate determinants of adoption of soil and water conservation measures in Kundudo mountain catchment. He found educational level of the household head, family size, farm size, security of tenure, farm experience and development agents' visit significantly affecting adoptionof soil and water conservation practices by the farmers. Therefore Logistic regression model is also employed to conduct this study since the dependent variable is binary choice.
Akalu et.al. (2015) used ordered probit model to identify Household-Level Determinants of Soil and Water Conservation Adoption. He found Farm labor, parcel size, ownership of tools, training in SWC, presence of SWC program, social capital (e.g., cooperation with adjacent farm owners), labor sharing scheme, and perception of erosion problem have a significant positive influence on actual and final adoption phases of SWC.
According to study by Mushir and Kedru, (2012), in Silti woreda farmers' willingness to use SWC practices is largely determined by their knowledge of the problem of soil erosion. The results of the field survey of their study show that about 70% of the farmers recognized soil erosion problems, and were of the opinion that conservation was necessary. Rill and gully erosion were the dominant forms mentioned by 76% of the respondents. Accordingly Various erosion control methods used in the area include, plantation of trees, application of manure, cut off drains, soil (stone) bunds, fallowing, contour ploughing drainage ditches and leaving crop residues on the field. The most important conservation structures widely used in the area include, fallowing, distribution of manure and soil (stone) bunds.
Agricultural production in Ethiopia is highly influenced by a decline in productivity due a decline in soil fertility. Soil erosion is a great threat to the nation's future food security and development prospective. On top of this, farm households' land use and conservation decisions are likely to be influenced by a number of factors. Due to this, numerous empirical technology adoption studies have been conducted for the last many years by different researchers with in and out of the country. The results of these studies, however, are inconsistent. In this section attempts will be made to illustrate the findings that have been drawn from these studies.
A study conducted by Mutuku et.al (2016) on factors affecting adoption of soil and water management practices in Machakos County, Kenya, using tobit regression results revealed that the variables age, gender, access to agricultural extension, access and agricultural credit, education level, access to inputs, access to radio, Labor, appropriate equipment farm implements, output Market access and farmers' perception on reliability of OctoberNovember Short rain season were found to influence adoption of sil and water management technologies significantly.
A study made on determinants of the use of soil conservation technologies by smallholder farmers in Hulet Eju Enesie District, East Gojjam Zone, Ethiopia by Derajew et.al(2013), using tobit model was used to estimate factors that affect the use of improved soil conservation technologies. In addition descriptive statistics were also used as deemed necessary. The results of this study indicated that educational level of the household head; extension contact; and slope of the plot positively and significantly affect farmers' conservation decision and the extent of use of improved soil conservation technologies; whereas, distance of the plot from residence, livestock holding and fertility of farm plot affect negatively and significantly farmers' conservation decision and the extent of use of improved soil conservation technologies.
Rehema B. (2014) used linear regression model to examine factors influencing adoption of soil conservation measures, sustainability and socio-economic impacts among small-holder farmers in Mbeya Rural District Tanzania. The result showed significant influence on personal factors (age and education) socio-economic factors (non- farm activities, farm size and fertilizer use), institutional factors (technical support, distance to market and training), biophysical factors (topography, types of soil erosion and soil fertility) among farmers.
A study conducted by Tesfaye (2003), On SWC use in Konso, Wolita and Wello, Ethiopia; indicated that land size, livestock ownership, family size, risk perception, land tenure on nonarable lands, labour organization, characteristics of technology, indigenous institution and physical factors are significant determinants of SWC. He pointed out that farmers' SWC decision are affected by the interplay of social economic and institutional factors. Even though some factors are more important than others under a given situation, attention should be given to all of them in order to understand what farmers do in SWC.
A study conducted by Yitayal (2014) on determinants of use of soil conservation measures by small holders in Jimma zone, Dedo district, using Tobit model analysis, showed that, slope and distance of the farm plots significantly influenced the use of both traditional and improved soil conservation measures. Area of cultivated land increased the probability of using improved soil conservation measures especially, improved soil bund and cutoff drain. Farmer's age decreased the use of improved soil conservation structures while education level of head of households has positive impact on soil conservation. Extension education had a substantial contribution to motivate the use of improved soil conservation measures but, it had no effect on the use of traditional soil conservations practices. Land to labour ratio affected the use of both traditional and improved soil conservation practices.
Mesfin (2015) used Ordered logit model to determinants of soil and water conservation adoption. He found sex of headed household, education of headed household, participation on training of physical soil and water conservation and livestock holding were found positively and significantly affect adoption of physical soil and water conservation structures; while distance of farm plot from residence and non-farm activity were negatively and significantly related with adoption of physical soil and water conservation technology by farmers.
2.6 Conceptual Framework
The conceptual frame work of this study is based on the concepts obtained from the reviewed literatures and observation. The conceptualized ideas are the focuses on the determinant factors to use SWC practices by small holder farmers.
Use of SWC practices by small holder farmers can be determined by a number of variables. The most important parameters that affect the participation of farmers in SWC for study will be: demographic, socio- economic, institutional and psychological factors. All these factors expected to have impact on the use of SWC practices.
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure 1 Conceptual Framework
Source: Literature Review and Personal Observation
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Description of the Study Area
3.1.1 Location
Meskan Woreda (shown in fig.1) is one of the 13 woredas and 2 city administration of Guraghe zone. The capitl of the Woreda, Butajera, is 135 km far away to the south of Addis Ababa, along the main road from Addis Ababa to Wolaita Sodo and Arba Minch and 155 km to the north of Hawassa, the capital of the region. Geographically, the woreda lies between 7.993515[0]-8.278101[0] latitude and 38.263 1 31[0] - 38.5 7 8 6 87[0] longitude. The woreda is divided in to 40 peasant associations and 3 urban kebeles. Based on the Aortophoto data obtained the total area of the wreda is 40421.73 hectares. (MWANRO, 2017)
3.1.2 Geographic clasification
The altitude of the woreda ranges between 1501-3500 m.a.s.l. It has two agro climatic zones Dega and Woinadega covering 20% and 80% respectively of the total. The recent land use types of the woreda are categorized as Crop land (17210ha), Natural forest (4482.2), Perennial crops (5268.9ha), Grazing land (2381.3ha), and Plantation (4717.2 ha), Degraded land (2640.5 ha), developable (820.6ha), NGO, GO and Religious organizations (535 ha) Investment (101.5ha), Residential buildings (1820ha), water logged (45ha) and water bodies (54ha). (MWANRO,2017)
3.1.3 Climate
The annual rainfall of the area ranges between 800 - 1200 mm. The temperature of the area ranges between 7.5- 24[0]C. (MWANRO, 2017)
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure 2. Map of the study area
Source: MWFEDO, 2017
3.2 Types of Data and Method of Data Collection
3.2.1 Primary data
The primary data, the main sources of information for the study, was collected from the sample respondents (small holder farmer house hold heads), and key informants from MWANRO through pre-tested questionnaires (close and open ended) and focus group discussion.
3.2.2 Secondary data
Secondary data includes both published and unpublished documents. Secondary data relevant for this research work would be collected from different documents in the Agriculture and Natural resources Offices of the Kebeles, woreda and Zone and non-governmental organizations and other related areas that were relevant to the research area. Different relevant websites were also utilized.
3.3 Sampling Techniques
In the study area, farming households are the main source for making day to day decision on farm activities. Thus, households were the basic sampling units. Multi-stage sampling techniques were used to generate the required primary data. At the first stage, Meskan Woreda was selected purposively because it is one of the food insecure, accessibility, researcher's familiarity and SWC practicing Woreda of the zone. In the second stage, the researcher used to stratify the woreda into two based on agro-climatic condition as Dega Dega and selected one from dega and two from Woina Dega. In the third stage, out of 40 kebeles within the Woreda, three kebeles (Yetebon, Dobana Gola and Bati Futo) were selected by purposive sampling technique because for the reason where the SWC practice was high in comparison to the other kebeles,. From these kebeles, sample size was determined using simplified formula provided by (Yamane, 1967) and 150 households were determined by employing 92 per cent confident interval and 8 per cent margin errors. That is, a probability proportion to size (PPS) was employed to determine sample size from each kebeles and finally households were selected by using systematic random sampling techniques (Table 1).
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- Citation du texte
- Eskinder Mengesha (Auteur), 2018, Adoption of Soil and Water Conservation Practices among Smallholder Farmers. The Case of Meskan Woreda, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1266518
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