Effects of Motivation on Construction Workers' Performance in Nigeria

Masterarbeit , 2017 , 157 Seiten , Note: 4.45

Führung und Personal - Mitarbeitermotivation, Mitarbeiterzufriedenheit

This paper is about the effects of motivation on construction worker's performance in Nigeria. The construction industry has been recognised as the locomotive for development of any economy. However, the continuing decline in the performance of the industry and the increasing challenges facing the industry militate against the industry as the engine of growth. Lack of workers motivation has been identified and this partly contributes to the steady decline in performance.

Against this backdrop, the research was tailored to develop ways of improving productivity through appropriate motivational strategies. The study adopted the use of quantitative approach. Data were collected through questionnaire survey from 102 construction workers randomly selected from the accessible population in Bauchi metropolis.

The questionnaire sought to elicit response from various workers in the construction industry. Subsequently, the collected data was subjected to descriptive statistical analysis with relative importance index to examine the degree of agreement and significance of the various motivational strategies to the construction site work.

Table of Contents

Title page

Declaration

Certification

Acknowledgment

Abstract

Table of Contents

List of Tables

List ofFigures

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
1.2 Statement of the Problem
1.3 Aim and Objectives
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Significance of the Study
1.6 Scope of the Study

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Construction Industry
2.2 Concept of Motivation
2.2.1 Importance of motivation
2.2.2 Factors enhancing workers motivation
2.2.2.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation
2.2.2.2 Monetary and non - monetary motivators
2.2.3 Theories of motivation
2.2.3.1 Content theories
2.2.3.2 Process theories
2.2.3.3 Instinct and Incentives theories
2.2.3.4 Reinforcement theory
2.3 Workers Performance -
2.3.1 Performance Standards
2.3.2 Performance Evaluation
2.3.3 Factors that motivates workers for good performance
2.4 Workers Motivation and Job Performance
2.5 Effects of motivation on workers performance
2.6 Concept of Productivity
2.6.1 Productivity Measurement
2.6.2 Efficiency and Effectiveness
2.6.3 Productivity and Efficiency
2.6.4 Factors affecting Labour Productivity
2.7 Analysis of Motivation Theories In Relation To Productivity
2.8 Influence of Motivation Theories in Construction Industry
2.9 Review of Related Literature on Motivation and Performance
2.9.1 Extrinsic motivational factors and Performance
2.9.2 Intrinsic motivational factors and Performance
2.10 Findings in the literature on motivation and performance
2.11 Theoretical Framework
2.12 Conceptual Framework
2.13 Conclusion

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research Approach and Design
3.3 Population of the Study
3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Technique
3.5 Methods of Data Collection
3.5.1 Primary Sources-
3.5.1 Secondary Sources
3.6 Method of Data Analysis
3.7 Questionnaire Design
3.8 Reliability and Validity Test
3.8.1 Reliability Test
3.8.2 Validity Test

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Analysis of Socio - Demographic Data
4.3 Analysis and Discussion of Result
4.3.1 Motivational methods used to influence workers performance
4.3.2 Relative importance of extrinsic motivation on workers performance -
4.3.3 Relative importance of intrinsic motivation on workers performance-
4.3.4 Relationship between motivation and workers performance CHAPTER FIVE

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Summary of Findings
5.2.1 Motivational methods used to influence workers performance
5.2.2 Relative importance of extrinsic motivation on workers performance
5.2.3 Relative importance of intrinsic motivation on workers performance
5.2.4 Relationship between motivation and workers performance
5.3 Conclusion
5.4 Recommendations-
5.5 Contribution to Knowledge
5.5 Areas for Further Research

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

List of Tables

Table 1: Motivation and Hygiene Factors

Table 2: Prioritized Motivational Factors

Table 3: Cronbah’s Alpha Scale Interpretation

Table 4: Cronbach’s Alpha Values of Questionnaire Construct

Table 5: Distribution of Respondents by Gender, Age and Level of Education-

Table 6: Distribution of Respondents According to their Experience, Position And Term of Employment

Table 7: Ranking of Motivational Methods Used By Employers

Table 8: Extrinsic Motivational Factors

Table 9: Intrinsic Motivational Factors

Table 10: Combined Ranking of Motivational Factors Affecting Construction Workers Performance

Table 11: Correlation between Motivation and Workers Performance

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A work of this nature could not have been possible without the assistance and encouragement from various bodies, individuals and experts in the field.

I wish to express my weighty gratitude to Almighty Allah whom by His grace, this work became a reality. I sincerely wish to express my profound gratitude and appreciation to my supervisors, Dr. (Bldr) Inuwa Yusuf Mohammed and Dr. Nuruddeen Usman for their guidance, patience, immeasurable support and encouragement in the course of this research. I will ever remain indebted to them for willingly accepting to play a very important role in seeing to the successful completion of this work, irrespective of their numerous engagements. May Almighty Allah continue to bless and upkeep them. I further wish to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to Dr. Aliyu Ahmad Aliyu, HOD, Department of Estate Management and Valuation; Dr. E. G. Wuritka, HOD, Department of Industrial Design and Dr. Inuwa Ibrahim, HOD, Department of Quantity Surveying; for their support given to me in all ways.

The support, guidance and encouragement of the following individuals are gratefully acknowledged: Mal. Hamza Usman, Project Coordinator, Department of Estate Management and Valuation; Dr. (Mrs) Maryam Salihu Muhammad, PG Coordinator, Department of Estate Management and Valuation and Dr. Bala Ishiyaku, Registration officer, Department of Estate Management and Valuation.

My sincere gratitude and appreciation also goes to the following: Professor Y.O. Sadiq, Dean, Faculty of Environmental technology; Professor Sani Usman Kunya, Dean Student Affairs Division; Dr. Shuaibu Ade, Registration officer, Department of Survey and Geoinformatics; Dr. Abubakar Wakawa, Department of Architecture; Mr. Haruna Adamu, Student Affairs Division; and Mr. Sani Abdulkadir (Arabs), Department of Building Technology, for their support, encouragement and advice throughout the course.

I acknowledge with deep sense of respect all my able lecturers in the Faculty of Environmental Technology, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University Bauchi. I also wish to thank the participants in my survey, who took time to fill the questionnaire. I would like to thank my loved ones especially my loving wife and children for their support and encouragement throughout the entire process. I will be forever grateful for your love.

My true regret and profound apology if I have unintentionally omitted any one to whom acknowledgements are due. I will be forever grateful for your support and encouragement. I dedicate this research work to my parents.

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the effect of motivation on construction workers performance in Bauchi metropolis, Nigeria. The construction industry has been recognised as the locomotive for development of any economy. However, the continuing decline in the performance of the industry and the increasing challenges facing the industry militate against the industry as the engine of growth. Lack of workers motivation has been identified and this partly contributes to the steady decline in performance. Against this backdrop, the research was tailored to develop ways of improving productivity through appropriate motivational strategies. The study adopted the use of quantitative approach. Data was collected through questionnaire survey from 102 construction workers randomly selected from the accessible population in Bauchi metropolis. The questionnaire sought to elicit response from various workers in the construction industry. Subsequently, the collected data was subjected to descriptive statistical analysis with relative importance index to examine the degree of agreement and significance of the various motivational strategies to the construction site work. Based on the overall sample the rankings revealed that extrinsic motivational factors such as good salary, bonus, fringe benefits and employee's promotion etc. were highly ranked as the most significant motivational factors. However, intrinsic motivational factors such as recognition, decision making, responsibility, creativity and ability utilization etc. were also considered important. It is recommended that provision of extrinsic factors such as good salary, fringe benefits, employee training, provision of adequate tools and equipment to construction workers may help improve the persistent decline in the performance of the industry. This study reinforces other research works on motivational strategies conducted in the construction industry.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

The construction industry plays an important role in the socio economic development of a country. It is the largest and most challenging industry in the world, its complexity and uniqueness is marked by the diverse skilled and unskilled as well as permanent and casual human resource of the industry (Wegelius, 2011) in Aina (2014). The industry employed about 8% of the US workforce representing about 11 million in 2007 (The Modular Building Institute, 2010) and 9% employment in Tanzania and contributed about 5% to GDP (ILO, 2005) cited in (Ajmal, Bashir, Abrar, Mahroof & Shahnawaz, 2015). Human resource plays a strategic role in increasing the productivity of any construction industry (Harris et al., 2008) in Ameh (2012). Construction industry in Nigeria contributed 3.99% to nominal GDP in Q1 2016, less than the 4.18% it contributed a year earlier, but slightly higher than the 3.36% it contributed in Q4 2015 (Nigerian GDP Report Q1, 2016). In construction industry, site workers account for 40% of direct capital cost of large construction projects and there is the need to maximise the productivity of human resources (Thomas, Buboltz & Winkelspecht, 2004). More so 30% to 50% of workers time is spent directly on the work and hence, there is the need to motivate the workforce for proper utilisation (Angela, 2012). In Nigeria's construction industry, companies are currently applying various non-financial incentive schemes aimed at improving operatives' productivity. This has significantly improved bricklayers' productive time and accounted for 6% to 26% of variations in output between block laying and concreting activities measured (Olabosipo, Adeyemi & Adesanya, 2004).

Motivation plays a key role on workers' job performance in any organization Calder (2006) as cited in (Faraji, 2013). The worker's motivation has been a long notion in human resource management and has drawn more attentions as a central research area for scholars and practitioners. As a result, a lot of theories and approaches have developed in order to describe the nature of workers' motivation in the private and the public sector (Calder, 2006) in Faraji (2013). The problem is that with the effects of the latest financial crisis construction industries need today, more than ever before, practical ways that can help motivate construction operatives to be productive and get “more for less” Robbins , et al., (2007) cited in Orasa (2014).

The theoretical basis for this study is derived from Herzberg's two factor theory which was developed by Frederick Irving Herzberg in 1959; Reinforcement theory by Skinner (1953) and process theory which include: Equity theory by Adam's (1963); Expectancy theory by Vrooms (1964) and Goal setting theory by Locke and Latham (1990). Herzberg (1987) describes the growth factors (or motivators) as intrinsic and the hygiene factors (or dissatisfaction-avoidance) as extrinsic motivational factors. Content theories also known as the “need theories” or “psychological theories” concentrates on the need of an employee. The theory focuses on what motivates employees to perform at work (Akinloye & Omonigho, 2014). According to Reinforcement theory, individuals are motivated when their behaviours are reinforced (Skinner, 1953) in Akinloye and Omonigho (2014). Adams equity theory proposes that individuals are motivated when they perceive that they are treated equitably in comparison to others within the organization (Adams, 1963). According to Vroom's (1964) as cited in (Akinloye & Omonigho, 2014) individuals are motivated by performance and the expected outcomes of their own behaviours while Locke and Lathum (1990) hypothesizes that by establishing goals, individuals are motivated to take action to achieve those goals. This study is modelled on the postulates of this theories because they concentrates on the need of employees. They are based on the postulation that people have a set of needs or desired outcomes, and they pursue activities to accomplish those needs. They focuses on what motivates employees to perform at work. According to Bulkus and Green (2009) as cited by Muogbo (2013), motivation is derived from the word “motivate”, means a move, push or influence to proceed for fulfilling a want. (Farland et al, 2011) in Muogbo (2013) describe motivation as a power that strengths behaviour, gives route to behaviour, and triggers the tendency to continue. This explanation identifies that in order to attain assured targets; individuals must be satisfactorily energetic and be clear about their determinations. According to Society for Human Resource Management (2010) cited in Faraji (2013), motivation is normally defined as the psychological forces that describe the direction of a person's level of effort, as well as a person's persistence in the face of hindrances which can either be extrinsic or intrinsic. According to Rush (1988) as cited by (Faraji, 2013) motivation is the willingness of an individual to do something and conditioned by actions to satisfy needs. Later Jibowo (2007) described motivation as something that energized individuals to take action and which is concerned with the choices the individual makes as part of his or her goal-oriented behaviour. Following the recent definition contributed by Saleem (2011), motivation is a person's intensity, direction and persistence of efforts to attain a specific objective. In this study, the definition of the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) is adopted which characterized motivation as extrinsic and intrinsic.

Intrinsic motivation refers to behaviour that is driven by internal rewards. In other words, the motivation to engage in a behaviour arises from within the individual because it is intrinsically rewarding. Intrinsic motivation is that which occurs while a person is performing an activity in which he gains satisfaction from engaging in that activity itself. This is called internal reward and it is directly part of the job content while extrinsic motivation involves engaging in a behaviour in order to earn external rewards or avoid punishments.

Extrinsic motivators are the incentives or rewards that a person can enjoy after finishing work. This is related to the job environment or an external reward (Cherry, 2014) in Aina (2014). According to Ajila (1997) as cited by Akindele (2003) an intrinsically motivated individual, will be committed to his work to the extent to which the job inherently contains tasks that are rewarding to him or her. And an extrinsically motivated person will be committed to the extent that he can gain or receive external rewards for his or her job. He further suggested that for an individual to be motivated in a work situation, there must be a need, which the individual would have to perceive a possibility of satisfying through some reward. If the reward is intrinsic to the job, such desire or motivation is intrinsic. But, if the reward is described as external to the job, the motivation is described as extrinsic.

Productivity is one of the key components of every company's success and competitiveness in the market. Productivity translates directly into cost savings and profitability (Proverbs et al., 2008) in Anjela (2012). A construction contractor stands to gain or lose, depending on how well his company's productivity responds to competition. Construction companies may gain advantage over their competitors by improving upon productivity to build projects at lower costs; yet, most contractors do not systematically and properly address this strategic issue or evaluate its impact on the project's profit. It is no longer sufficient to outbid a singular, neighbouring contractor because many companies compete nationally and/or internationally for construction contracts. Contractors must strive to improve productivity continuously or risk losing important contracts. All construction companies are concerned with what should be done to achieve sustained high levels of performance through people. Consequently the subject of adequate motivation of workers as derived from the so many attempts made by management practitioner is to look for the best way to manage so as to accomplish an objective or mission with the least inputs of materials and human resources available. In any serious and competitive society workers are one of the tools for economic progress, their welfare is taken into serious consideration because without a dedicated workforce an organization crumbles (Rabey, 2001).

It is therefore, apparent that the issue of adequate motivation of worker has relevance in managerial function and activities that are aimed at directing the productive effort of the workforce toward achieving organisational objectives. Katz (2005) holds that management strives to create and maintain an environment that is conducive to the performance of individuals who are working together in groups towards the accomplishment of pre-selected objective. Workers in organisation work in-groups and group dynamics often result in the conflict of goals between individuals and their groups.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Motivation is the most important factor for productivity (Asproni, 2004) as cited by Lawal and Kolawole (2004). A well-motivated employee is resolute to accomplish the goal of its firm and directs all his efforts and energy towards the achievement of the organizational goal by imputing a good performance (Akinloye & Omonigho, 2014). They look for ways to enhance their performance and do their best in all situations. Well motivated employees are persistently looking for improved ways to carry out a job (Akinloye & Omonigho, 2014). Motivation is one approach for accomplishing higher goals and development. Employees must be motivated to deliver quality service and effectiveness to an organization, this means that motivation is a key factor for progress (Woo, 2010). Sharma (2011) cited in Anjela (2012) asserted that the following results may be anticipated if the employees are appropriately motivated: the workers will be more satisfied if management gives them opportunities to attain their physiological and psychological needs; they will collaborate willingly with management and contribute their utmost towards the attainment of the organizational goal; they will be inclined towards being as efficient as possible by enhancing their dexterity, knowledge and understanding which would help them assist in the advancement of the organization. This will augment productivity, reduce absenteeism of workers and labour turnover to the minimum. Motivated employees work towards the advancement, productivity and success of the organization (Manzoor, 2012) in Faraji (2013). Abonam et al., (2011) in Faraji (2013) asserted that motivated employees are more fruitful and help organizations stay alive. He further stated that individuals satisfy their personal goals by stimulating themselves and that propels their efforts towards the accomplishments of objectives of the organization.

Productivity decline has been widely reported in construction industry as occurring world over (Yisa, Holt & Zakeri, 2000). In Nigeria, productivity decline has been ascribed to be responsible for time and cost overrun of most projects executed and the cause of low GDP recorded in the sector (Koko, Afuye & Demide, 2013). To increase labour effectiveness therefore; there are some factors that need to be addressed, such as motivation of the employees, safety at work, environmental factors and physical limitation (Dozzi & AbouRizk, 1993). Shashank, Supata, Kabin and Nath (2014) in their study grouped factors that cause variation in labour productivity into eight. These groups are: manpower, environmental, material/ equipment, motivation, safety, managerial and quality groups. They concluded that out of these eight groups, motivation group has the highest impact on variation of labour in enhancing performance and productivity. They recommended that managers should make the welfare of their workers a priority through motivation schemes in order for them to put in their best in improving productivity. Kazaz, Manisali and Ulubeyli (2008) did similar work in Turkey. They classified productivity factors into four groups. These groups of factors include organisational, economic, physical and socio-psychological, and motivational factors. The second most significant factor after organisational factor from their findings is motivational factor. This underscores the role of motivation in ensuring productivity increase.

Despite all the motivational theories discussed by past philosophers, academicians, scholars, and employed as motivational strategies by organizations, it has become increasingly difficult for projects to be completed within the scheduled budget, time, and to meet up with the specified standard in Nigeria (Akinloye & Omonigho, 2014). Eldin and Egger (1990) noticed that construction output has been decreasing consistently despite the rising cost and huge labour intensive nature of construction projects all over the world. The deterioration in workers' productivity is occasioned by the failure of the building industry to execute projects on time with the apparent repercussion of cost over run (Akinloye & Omonigho, 2014). According to Aiyetan and Olotuah (2006) government ministries and their agencies in Nigeria have experienced that most of their projects are influenced by low productivity due to inadequate motivation. Most projects have also suffered from serious obstacle and even termination of contracts. In the Nigerian construction industry, it is believed that productivity is low when compared to other developing countries and one of the factors contributing to such low productivity is that of workers motivation (Olabosipo, Adeyemi & Adesanya, 2004). However, most of the previous studies on the role of motivation on employees' job performance descend little of practical application or offer it only for other sectors of the economy such as manufacturing companies (Robbins , et al., 2007) in Akinloye, Lawal and Omonigho (2014). Why this precarious situation? How effective motivational methods are used by employers to influence workers performance? What is the relative importance of motivational factors (Extrinsic/Intrinsic) on workers' performance at construction sites and to what extent motivation relate with workers' performance in the study area?

There is an enormous body of conceptual and empirical evidence concerned with the application of motivation theory to the construction industry (Kaming et al., 2012). There are so may researches on motivational factors of construction workers in Nigeria such as (Lawal et al., 2014, Olabosipo et al., 2004; Olatunji et al., 2006; Ameh & Shokumbi 2013) etc. Unfortunately, there has not been so much empirical research on the segregation of motivational factors which are extrinsic and intrinsic in Bauchi metropolis, Nigeria.

In view of the above discrepancy, the researcher seeks to provide information on the effect of motivation on construction workers' performance in Bauchi metropolis with the view of establishing extrinsic and intrinsic motivational strategies to improve performance and productivity in the construction industry.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study is to examine the effects of motivation on construction workers' performance in Bauchi metropolis with a view to developing ways of improving productivity through varied motivational strategies. To achieve the stated aim, the following objectives were drawn:

i. To examine the effectiveness of motivational methods used by employers to influence workers' performance at construction sites in Bauchi metropolis.
ii. To determine the relative importance of extrinsic motivation on construction workers' performance in Bauchi metropolis.
iii. To determine the relative importance of intrinsic motivation on construction workers' performance in Bauchi metropolis.
iv. To assess the extent of relationship between motivation and workers' performance at construction sites in Bauchi metropolis.

1.4 Research Questions

i. What is the effectiveness of motivational methods used by employers to influence workers performance at construction sites in Bauchi metropolis?
ii. What is the relative importance of extrinsic motivational factors on construction workers' performance in Bauchi metropolis?
iii. What is the relative importance of intrinsic motivational factors on construction workers' performance in Bauchi metropolis?
iv. What is the extent of relationship between motivation and workers' performance at construction sites in Bauchi metropolis?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The research study investigates the effects of motivation on construction workers' performance in Bauchi metropolis. Understanding these will be helpful for the building construction professionals who work on the initial phases of construction planning in order to efficiently deliver the project plan.

The study will suggest significant policy statements through its recommendations. It will make recommendations on both extrinsic and intrinsic motivational factors that could inform policy formulation in Nigerian construction industry and other organizations. The study can be of great benefit to construction companies in Nigeria to have an overview on the motivational factors and how to manage productivity. It can also help the construction companies in the country to have deeply awareness about the main factors affecting workers' productivity in building construction project which will enable them to manage productivity more effectively. The research work should also influence the practice of Project Managers, Contractors and Sub-contractors which will enable them in building a suitable labour productivity plan with its characteristic and condition. The main goal of the research work is to provide substantive information about motivation and performance to the project management teams who enable the project's success. The findings of this study will be disseminated through Journals, conferences, seminars and as a resource in the department of building technology and University library of ATBU, Bauchi.

1.6 Scope of the Study

This study on the effect of motivation on construction workers' performance in Bauchi metropolis is conducted through quantitative design by exploratory and descriptive survey. Although the construction industry in itself is very broad, the study limit its scope to local indigenous construction companies handling medium sized projects in Bauchi metropolis. This is because there is easy access of information in Bauchi metropolis to the researcher.

The study also focused on the motivational measures which are extrinsic and intrinsic to the management, professionals and Skilled workers in construction industry within the study area.

The study also limit its scope to respondents who are the principal actors in the construction industry namely: the Consultants, the Contractors, Site engineers, Trade Foreman, Operations managers, Construction managers, etc. It also include other workers in the industry classified as skilled labour. The data for the research is collected by the researcher through questionnaire survey technique. The study is specifically seek to determine the effect of extrinsic and intrinsic motivational factors on construction workers performance in Bauchi metropolis, Nigeria.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Construction Industry

According to Jarkas (2012) construction industry is a unique one, it is vital to the existence of other industries in that it delivers the environment under which other industries operate. The industry is responsible for 3.99 % of the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employs up to 20% of the labour force. The industry is extremely fragmented with contractors ranging from a few multinationals that employ hundreds of labour to the mainstream of contractors that employ less than ten employees. Construction projects as stated by Jarkas (2012) represent some of the major and most complex activities known; when completed, a testimony is given of different technological methods adopted and enormous consumption of resources such as time, money and people's talent used. There are two ways by which construction projects could be viewed; the technical view (in terms of concrete, steel, wood and pipes) and the complex set of roles and relationships (how the contract is planned, administered and managed) without which nothing could be reached. These roles and relationships include how the participants interact with each other so that the project is a success and how they resolve tricky issues met during the course of the project.

Mohammed and Anumba (2006) in Adjei (2009) stressed that a growing number of construction organizations are applying project development initiatives to improve their performance. The fundamental objectives are to bring construction projects to the required quality more rapidly and improve project performance. Unfortunately, practice is not that simple as construction labour has become more complex technically and administratively, and there are several challenging engineering and organisation problems that occur on the site. According to Ashford cited by Aynur (2006), while the Architect defines the concept, the scopes and form of the building, the Architect relies on the technical skills of the Structural Engineer, the Building Services Engineer and last but by no means the least, the practical know­how of the Builder in the production management of buildings. Starting from the possession of the site to the completion of a building project, the Builder is charged with the responsibility of managing the production process and supervision of artisans and craftsmen (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2006). In a related development, Olateju (1992) emphasized that a builder must demonstrate good site management practices that are significant in maintaining efficiency, cost effectiveness and control on project. Based on this, good customer relations, good reputation and high integrity are maintained. Akindele (2003) showed that in order to attain specified quality standards at first attempt, all the site activities must become right at first attempt that must be managed by the builder. In Nigeria, the construction industry is classically dominated by small and medium sized local contractors who are mainly involved in private residential projects (Bashir et al., 2010) in Fagbenle (2011). These small and medium sized local contractors are usually clustered as informal or unorganised sector of the industry, this cluster comprises of simple residential building projects built by private clients constructed through the effort of hired artisans and labour and in some cases, the owner supervises the construction directly, with the government not having any direct influence on the sector. However, the major contractors, which are referred to as the organised sector comprises of established contractors who are officially registered to carry out construction projects and they are usually made up of highly skilled workers, both expatriate and local labourers. These companies operate under a set of given rules and regulations of the country (Fagbenle, 2011).

2.2 Concept of Motivation

Motivation is defined as “the forces within a person that affects his or her direction, strength and perseverance of voluntary behaviour (Chowdhury, 2007). Bull (2005) further advocate that motivation refers to the “process that account for an individual's willingness to accept advanced levels of effort to each organizational objectives conditioned by the effort's ability to satisfy some distinct need”. If managers today are to shoulder responsibility to lead workers towards attaining organizational objectives, it is then crucial for them to comprehend the psychological process of motivation. Other researcher such as Kreitner (1995), Buford, Bedeian and Linder (1995), Higgins (1994) all cited in Linder (1998) define motivation as “the psychological process that gives behaviour a purpose and direction, a tendency to behave in a purposive manner to attain specific unmet needs, an unsatisfied need, and the will to achieve, respectively. In early years Whiseand and Rush (1988) in Shun (2004) explained motivation as the willingness of an individual to do something and accustomed by actions to satisfy needs.

Later Smithers and Walker (2000) described motivation as something that thrilled individuals to take action and which is concerned with the selections the individual makes as part of his or her goal-oriented behaviour. Following the recent definition contributed by (Fuller et al., 2008) in Angela (2012), motivation is a person's strength, direction and persistence of efforts to attain a specific goals. From the statement provided, strength as further elaborated is how hard an individual tries to attain the specific goal while direction is the channel to intensity towards the correct objective; whereas persistence refers to how long someone maintains an effort to reach the specific objective. Motivation is defined by Awadhi (2011) as the willingness to exercise high levels of effort, toward organizational objectives, conditioned by the effort's capability to satisfy some individual need. Three key rudiments in the definition are further provided as effort, organization goal, and need.

Koblegard et al., (2005) in (Jason, Ruparathna, Mendis & Kasun, 2014) also define motivation as “providing an initiative to act to satisfy needs or desires”. Within the context of work, Pinder (1998) cited in (Jason, Ruparathna, Mendis & Kasun, 2014) stated that work motivation is a set of active forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual's being, to initiate work-related behaviour and to define its form, direction, intensity, and duration. According to Jenkins et al. in Jason (2014), motivation is intangible, a hypothetical concept that is used to elucidate human behaviour. Motivation is generally sourced from intrinsic or extrinsic motives (Nelson, 2001). Intrinsic motivation involves people doing an activity because they find it stimulating and derive spontaneous satisfaction from the activity itself. Extrinsic motivation, in contrast, needs an instrumentality between the activity and some divisible consequences such as tangible or verbal rewards; hence, satisfaction comes not from the activity itself but rather from the extrinsic values to which the activity leads (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

According to Society for Human Resource Management (2010) cited in Boamah (2014), motivation is normally defined as the psychological forces that describe the direction of a person's level of effort, as well as a person's persistence in the face of hindrances which can either be extrinsic or intrinsic. Bratton et al., (2007) in Boamah (2014) defined motivation as a cognitive decision making process that impacts the persistence and direction of goal directed behaviour. Work motivation can also be defines as the psychological forces within a person that governs the direction of that person's behaviour in an organisation (George & Jones, 2008) in Boamah (2014). Component in the above definitions are: ‘effort'- a measure of intensity that maximises workers potential capacity to work in a way that is suitable to the job; ‘persistence' - is the application of effort work-related tasks workers display over a time period; and ‘direction' - emphasises that persistent high level of work-related effort should be directed in a way that benefits the work environment. Bartol and Martin (1998) in Boamah (2014) describe motivation as a power that strengths behaviours, gives way to behaviour, and triggers the tendency to continue. This explanation recognises that in order to attain assured goals; individuals must be adequately energetic and be clear about their determinations.

Denhardt et al. (2008) as cited by Boamah (2014) also define motivation as an internal state that causes people to act in a particular way to achieve particular objectives and purposes. Whilst it is not possible to observe motivation itself, it's possible to detect the outward manifestations of motivation. For instance, the acquisition of money may be an extrinsic motivator, but it is simply the display of the internal drive to meet intrinsic needs like purchasing food, paying rent for shelter, or gaining high social status. Denhardt et al. (2008) in Boamah (2014) added that motivation is not the same as satisfaction. Satisfaction is past oriented, whereas motivation is future oriented. Roussel (1999) as cited by Boamah (2014) on his part also indicated that workers may be very satisfied by the compensation of their job; there are myriad instances where these employees are not entirely motivated to continue doing what they would do. Motivation is central to management because it explains why people act the way they do in organizations. Motivation may also be defined as the internal process leading to behaviour to satisfy needs. The process people go through to satisfy their needs is need - motive -behaviour - satisfaction or dissatisfaction (Lussier, 2005) in Boamah (2014). Some of the authors who had worked on the principal thought behind motivation such as Kreitner (1995) in Boamah (2014), Buford et al. (1995) in Boamah (2014), Lindner (1998) in Boamah (2014) defined motivation as “the psychological process that provides behaviour purpose and direction, a predisposition to behave in a purposive manner to achieve specific unmet needs, an unsatisfied need and the will to achieve”.

It can be observed from the above definitions that, motivation in general, is more or less basically concerned with factors or actions that moves, leads, and drives certain human action or inaction over a given period of time given the prevailing conditions. Furthermore the definitions suggest that there is a need to be an “invisible force” to drive people to do something in return. It could also be inferred from the definition that having a motivated work force or creating an atmosphere in which high levels of motivation are preserved remains a challenge for today's management. This challenge may stem from the simple fact that motivation is not a static trait but rather a dynamic phenomenon as it could change with changes in personal, psychological, financial or social factors.

For the purpose of this study, the definition of the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) is adopted. Therefore, following the Society for Human Resource Management (2010) definition, the working definition for this study on motivation is: “The psychological forces that determine the direction of a person's level of effort, as well as a person's persistence in the face of obstacles” which can either be extrinsic or intrinsic.

The above definition integrates the idea of the many possible actions that a person could involve in either to keep trying or give up when faced with roadblocks and hurdles. The adoption of this definition makes it possible to examine the factors that moves, leads, and drives certain human action or inaction over a given period of time given the prevailing circumstances.

2.2.1 Importance of Motivation

Motivation is significant in the work place because motivation denotes arousal and maintenance of interest in doing an activity. Motivation is of enormous importance with regards to enhancing performance in any organization. Every manager struggles to motivate his or her workers to greater and higher performance towards attaining organizational mission. It is the well-thought-out view of Zhou (2004) that performance depend on three factors, namely, Ability, Environment and Motivation which can be expressed as follows: P = M + A + E. Ability which is the operatives' skill and capacity to perform a given work, can be attained in the case of its deficiency, through a training program or a transfer to a simpler job. Environment, which refers to the requisite of physical material resources and equipment to do the job, can also be provided.

However, motivation that entails an employee wanting to do the job cannot be easily provided or generalised. It requires extra effort on the part of the supervisor to determine what will motivate the workers to work hard enough to meet set performance stages. Therefore, motivation is important in an organisation in as much as it determines employee's performance in combination with ability and environment (Zhou, 2004). According to Spector (2008) as cited by Faraji (2013) advocated that placing human resources into action requires physical, financial and human resources to achieve the goals. It is through motivation that the human resources can be preserved by making full use of it. This can be done by building willingness in employees to work. This will help the enterprise in safeguarding best possible utilization of resources. Motivation improves level of efficiency of workers, the level of a subordinate or employee does not only depend upon his qualifications and abilities. For getting best of his work performance, the gap between ability and willingness has to be filled which helps in improving the level of performance of subordinates. This will result into increase in productivity, reducing cost of operations, improving overall efficiency and leads to achievement of organizational objectives. The workforces can remain loyal to the enterprise only when they have a feeling of participation in the management. The skills and efficiency of workforces will always be of advantage to employers as well as employees. This will lead to a good public image in the market which will attract experienced and qualified people into a concern. As it is said, “Old is gold” which suffices with the role of motivation here, the older the people, the more the experience and their adjustment into a concern which can be of benefit to the enterprise.

2.2.2 Factors Enhancing Workers' Motivation

Employees want to earn judicious salaries, as money represents the most significant incentive, when speaking of its influential value (Saleem, 2011). Financial rewards have the capability to maintain and motivate individuals towards higher performance, especially employees from production companies, as individual may use the money to satisfy their needs. Thus, pay has a significant impact in establishing employees' diligence and commitment, being a key motivator for employees. Nonetheless, studies have shown that salary does not boost productivity on the long term and money does not increase performance significantly (Zhou, 2004). Furthermore, focusing only on this aspect might weaken employees' attitude, as they might pursue only financial gains. Fortunately, there are other non-financial factors that have a positive influence on motivation, such as rewards, recognition and performance feedbacks etc.

Many researches have also pointed out that rewards lead to job satisfaction, which in turn influence directive and positively the performance of the employees. Moreover, rewards are one of the most efficient tools of management when trying to influence individual or group behaviour, as to improve organization's effectiveness. The vast majority of companies use pay, promotion, bonuses and other types of rewards to motivate employees and to increase their performance. In order to use salary as a motivator, managers have to develop salary structures, according to the importance of each job, individual performance and special allowances. Employees can also be motivated through proper leadership, as leadership is all about getting thing done the right way. In order to achieve these goals, the leader should gain the employees' trust and make them follow him. Nevertheless, in order to make them trust him and complete their tasks properly for the organization, the employees should be motivated (Zhou, 2004). The leaders and the employees help one another to attain high levels of morality and motivation. Trust represents the perception of one individual about others and his willingness to act based on a speech or to comply with a decision. Therefore, trust is an important factor for an organization that wants to be successful, as it has the ability to enhance employees' motivation and foster interpersonal communication. Irrespective of the degree of technical automation, attaining high levels of productivity is influenced by the level of motivation and effectiveness of the staff. Therefore, developing and implementing employee training programs is a necessary strategy to motivate workers. In addition, a good communication between the managers and the workforce can instigate motivation, as the degree of ambiguity decrease.

2.2.2.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

According to Deci and Ryan (2000), Motivation present in workplace is two types: intrinsic and extrinsic. This implies that job related variables affecting motivation have intrinsic and extrinsic motivational values that drive the employees to perform. Given that most employees are intrinsically and extrinsically motivated simultaneously, hence a conclusion can be made that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are not mutually exclusive.

Intrinsic motivation stems from the word “internal” which implies motivation comes from within the individual or from the activity itself and positively affects behaviour, performance, and well-being. In other words, this type of motivation is self-generated when intrinsically motivated, the individual will also strive to satisfy three innate psychological needs: namely needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Such employees like to have a substantial amount of freedom to make decision, or empowering a channel to impress creativity, opportunities for advancement, recognition for good work, to be treated in a polite and thoughtful manner, and possess the position to take on tasks that are both challenging and meaningful of which he/she would feel an inherent sense of accomplishment upon successful completion. For instance an employee who has encountered an intriguingly difficultly problem is unlikely to surrender just because the problem appears to be unsolvable. Instead the employee will put forth his /her rest efforts, say by investing more time of taking the task home; as he/she views the problem as challenging and worthwhile to complete. In fact many researchers have acknowledged and proven that intrinsic motivation does have a positive long-term effect and is regarded as the “true motivation” (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Intrinsic motivation is an inward drive coming from within the person which makes him to work effectively and efficiently toward the realization of organizational productivity (Deci & Ryan, 2000). It arises from natural psychological needs, such as needs for competence and autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 1985). It is a self-generated urge that comes from inside an employee and influences him/her to work harder. They are connected to job related and social incentives such as opportunity to use one's ability, interesting work, recognition of a good performance, development opportunities, a sense of challenge and achievement, participation in decision making, and being treated in a caring and thoughtful manner etc.

On the other hand, extrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from outside an individual in exchange for external rewards and is not derived from the work itself (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Extrinsic motivation takes the form of tangible monetary or non- monetary incentives such as pay rise, gift certificates, material possessions, vacation trips wall plagues, company banquets, movie tickets and prestige evaluations among others. For example, an employee may work doubly hard to finish a project before the scheduled deadline because of the tangible reward that accompanies for working effectively. Extrinsic motivation exists when behaviour is performed to attain externally administered incentives. Extrinsic motivation is related to “tangible” incentives such as wages and salaries, fringe benefits, cash bonuses, security, promotion, wall plaques, free dinner or movie tickets etc. Extrinsic rewards can act as positive reinforce, they have been found to be an effective motivation tool for short-term gains (Deci & Ryan, 2000). That is, meeting immediate goals, it may have long-term adverse effects/impacts on employee's behaviour. Furthermore, in contrast to extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation is said to exist when behaviour is performed for its own sake rather than to obtain material or social re-enforcers.

However, extrinsic rewards can still be useful if administered under the right conditions/ circumstances such as the absence or low levels of intrinsic motivation or when the role is unchallenging and mundane (routine). In case of healthcare facilities, intrinsic motivation of workers can be measured in terms of job satisfaction derived from working at hospital, enjoyment of healthcare profession, the challenging and competitive nature of healthcare, recognition, career achievement and control over others. On the other hand of extrinsic motivation of doctors/nurses on the other hand, can be measured in terms of externally administered rewards like salary, free accommodation, free meals, weekly duty and duty allowances, advance payments in case of financial problems, leave of absence and free medical care among others.

In summary, motivation factors are related to work content, while hygiene factors are related to work environment as summarized in the Table below:

Table1: MotivationandHygieneFactors

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Source: (Griffin, 2008), p.440.

2.2.2.2 Monetary Motivators and Non-Monetary Motivators

Motivation can be described as intrinsic and extrinsic. Some factors are more motivating than others. Most researchers put much effort to find out which of the factors are the best motivators. The most common factors that are taken into consideration are two categories: monetary and non-monetary incentives. As Deci and Ryan (2000) suggested, money is a motivator because it satisfies a lot of needs. It is a factor which is indispensable for life and which is needed to satisfy basic needs of survival and security. Higher needs such as self-esteem can also be satisfied by it. With money people are able buy things that show their status and create a visible sign of appreciation. In other words, money is a symbol of many intangible goals what makes it a powerful motivating factor.

There is no consensus about the role of money as motivator. Some studies confirm that in fact money is a good motivator, while others have found that money is not at all a motivator. For example, Deci and Ryan (2000) in their study on the importance of pay in employee motivation found that money is not a motivator for every person and not in every circumstance. However, it is an important factor for most people such as employees. These researchers suggest that money is much more important in peoples' actual choices than in their responses to the question about importance of money as a motivator. That might lead to an underestimation of monetary rewards as one of motivating factors in job settings. Similar results about the importance of money as a motivator come from Awadhi (2011) study based on a literature review on motivation and executive compensation. In his opinion money is still the most crucial motivating factor for employee that makes him perform well in the company. He agrees that intrinsic rewards motivate executives but after a certain point of career money seems to have greater importance. Awadhi (2011) goes further in his conclusions as he indicates that long­term incentives are less effective than short-term, performance based incentives. This is the result of associated risk and uncertainty about the future which comes with long term incentives.

In the extant literature, there are many supporters of financial incentives as motivators while on the other hand, there is a large group of researchers who neglect the fact that money is a good motivator. Some of them are very critical about the use of money as a motivator. For example, Barney (1992) writes that “money isn't nearly so potent a motivating force as theory and common sense suggest it should be”. He cites other authors' research that showed no influence of money on peoples' motivation in boring and fatiguing jobs but indicated other factors that had influence such as freedom to schedule their work by employees. Some results that support Barney words come from Fischer and Nunn Quarterly survey conducted in June 1992. Responses received from 1,047 executives, managers, and employees around the world showed that three non-cash motivators (praise from immediate managers, leadership attention, a chance to lead projects or task forces) are more effective motivators than the three highest rated financial incentives (cash bonuses, increased base pay, and stock or stock options). Another study on health workers motivation which was not related to business environment also showed that non-financial motivators play important role in employees' motivation (Fischer & Nunn, 1992).

2.2.3 Theories of Motivation

Many theories about motivation have been developed and a plenty of research has been conducted but factors that motivates people to perform well at work are still a controversial topic. Many researchers as a starting point for their work in the field of motivation used the most known theories and models of motivation which are divided into major categories: content and process theories.

2.2.3.1 Content Theories

The content theories include Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's Two - factor theory, McGregor Theory X and Y, McClelland's Achievement Motivation Theory and Alderfer's Need Modified Theory.

These theories are concerned with individual needs and goals which are said to be the same for every person (Fincham & Rhodes, 2005) in Faraji (2013).

i. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow (1967) as cited by Maasanah (2014) developed the hierarchy of needs, which suggests that individual needs exist in a hierarchy consisting of physiological needs, security needs, belongingness needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs. Physiological needs are the most basic needs for food, water, and other factors necessary for survival. Security needs include needs for safety in one's physical environment, stability, and freedom from emotional distress. Belongingness needs relate to desires for friendship, love, and acceptance within a given community of individuals. Esteem needs are those associated with obtaining the respect of one's self and others. Finally, self-actualization needs are those corresponding to the achievement of one's own potential, the exercising and testing of one's creative capacities, and, in general, to becoming the best person one can possibly be.

Unsatisfied needs motivate behaviour; thus, lower-level needs such as the physiological and security needs must be met before upper-level needs such as belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization can be motivational. According to the implications of the hierarchy, individuals must have their lower level needs met by, for example, safe working conditions, adequate pay to take care of one's self and one's family, and job security before they will be motivated by increased job responsibilities, status, and challenging work assignments. Maslow's theory has not received a great deal of support with respect to specific notion it proposes (Greenberg & Baron, 1995) in Yisa, Holt and Zakeri, 2000. To them this model is theorized to be especially effective in describing the behaviour of individuals who are high ingrowth need strength because employees who are different to the idea of increasing their growth will not realize any physiological reaction to their jobs. Maslow's theory influences all bank employees regardless of the age, gender, qualification and so on; they choose occupation that they like to be satisfied.

ii. Herzberg's Two - Factor Theory

The second content theory is Herzberg's two factor theory. His theory is actually based on Maslow's hierarchy of needs but he distinguishes needs in hygiene factors and motivators or growth factors. This Herzberg theory brought a lot of interest from academics and from managers who were looking for ways of motivating their employees. The reason for so much interest in Herzberg's results comes from a dual character of his work. His theory not only describes employees' needs but also goes further and presents how to enrich jobs and make workforce more motivated (Fincham & Rhodes, 2005) in Faraji (2013). Herzberg indicates that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are not opposite phenomena (Herzberg, 1987) in Faraji (2013). According to him the opposite of satisfaction is rather no satisfaction and the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction. Herzberg suggests that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are produced by different factors. People are satisfied at their work by factors.

Herzberg highlighted that when an institution hygiene factors do not exist (e.g. salary, job security, working conditions, level and quality of supervision, company policy and administrative and interpersonal relations) employees are dissatisfied and if these factors exists this does not mean that employees are motivated or satisfied this is because based on his research the opposite of de-motivation is motivation only semantically and not when it comes to understanding the behaviour of employees in their jobs (Herzberg, 1987) in Yisa, Holt and Zakeri, 2000. Herzberg's theory provides a strong link between motivation and performance of employees in construction industries. He presents that performance can come as an emanation of feelings like achievement, advancement, growth which are related with motivation. He emphasized the importance of job enrichment and he separated it from job enlargement which includes increased responsibility and involvement, opportunities for advancement and the sense of achievement. According to Herzberg, the followings are part of motivational factors: Achievement: An example of positive achievement might be if an employee completes a task or project before the deadline and receives high reviews on the result, the satisfaction the employee feels would increase. However, if that same individual is unable to finish the project in time or feels rushed and is unable to do the job well, the satisfaction level may decrease.

Recognition: When the employee receives the acknowledgement they deserve for a job well done, the satisfaction will increase. If the employees work is overlooked or criticized it will have the opposite effect.

Work itself: This involves the employees' perception of whether the work is too difficult or challenging, too easy, boring or interesting. Responsibility: This involves the degree of freedom employees have in making their own decisions and implementing their own ideas.

The more liberty to take on that responsibility the more inclined the employee may be to work harder on the project, and be more satisfied with the result.

Advancement: This refers to the expected or unexpected possibility of promotion. An example of negative advancement would be if an employee did not receive an expected promotion or demotion.

Possibility of Growth: This motivation factor includes the chance one might have for advancement within the institution. This could also include the opportunity to learn a new skill or trade. When the possibility/opportunity for growth is lacking or if the employee has reached the peak or glass ceiling, as it is sometimes referred to, this could have a negative effect on the satisfaction the employee feels with their job and position.

The following are the hygiene factors, which work in the same way with positive or negative attributes. However, these factors can only have an effect on the dissatisfaction one feels. Institution Policy or Administration: An employee's perception of whether the policies in place are good or bad or fair or not, changes the level of dissatisfaction that employee will feel.

Personal or Working Relationships: This is those relationships one engages in with their supervisors, peers, and subordinates. How someone feels about the interaction and discussions that take place within the work environment can also effect dissatisfaction working conditions: This includes the physical surroundings that one works within, such as the facilities or location. Salary: This factor is fairly simple, the increase or decrease of wage or salary effects the dissatisfaction within a company a great deal.

Personal Life: Although people try to separate the two, work and personal life, it is inevitable that one will affect the other.

Feeling a Job Security: This is a pretty significant factor. The sense of job security within a position or organization as a whole relates to the dissatisfaction as well (Ruthankoon & Ogunlana 2003) in Orasa, 2014.

Herzberg says that leaders should avoid placing strong emphasis on fulfilling hygiene needs as this will result in employees relying too heavily on extrinsic rewards and may pose impediments to the long term success of the organization. Instead, leaders should focus on designing more intrinsically challenging task, provide recognition and empowering employees when certain level of ability is demonstrated, which are the true motivators, when fulfilled, contribute to long term positive effect on employees job performance. This research adopted the Herzberg's two factor theory as it looks at intrinsic and extrinsic factors of motivation.

iii. Alderfer's Need Modified Theory

Alderfer's (1969) as cited in Adjei (2009), modified need hierarchy theory was developed from Maslow's hierarchy need theory. It condensed the five levels of need in the hierarchy need into three levels: existence; relatedness; and growth which emerged the other name as ERG theory.

- Existence needs: - They are concerned with sustaining human existence and survival, and it covers physiological and safety needs.
- Relatedness needs: - This focused on the relationships with the social environment and it encompasses love, affiliation and a meaningful interpersonal relationships safety and esteem needs.
- Growth needs: - It is concerned with the development of potential, and cover self-esteem and self-actualisation.

Alderfer (1969) in Adjei (2009), suggested that the individual progresses through the hierarchy from existence needs, to relatedness and to growth needs as the lower needs become satisfied. The activated need in his view is more than one and therefore, suggested that individual need is more of continuum than hierarchical. Alderfer postulated a two-way progression and cited a frustration-regression process as the downward trend. He said the lower level needs become the focus of the individual's effort when continuous frustration is experienced in the quest for higher level needs. He further suggested that lower level needs need not to be completely satisfied before the emergence of a higher level. The ERG theory states that an individual is motivated by one or more set of needs. In this sense if a person's quest for a need is blocked, then attention should be focused on the satisfaction of needs at other levels (Mullins, 2005) in Adjei (2009).

iv. McGregor Theory X and Theory Y

McGregor (1960) constructed a philosophy based on differing managerial practice and presented a sharp contrast between two different sets of managerial assumptions about people and identified them as theory X and theory Y which represents two extreme ends of a continuum of beliefs. Theory X set of assumptions about human behaviour suggest that people act to realise basic needs and, hence, do not voluntarily contribute to organisational aims (Bloisi et al., 2003) in (Adjei, 2009). McGregor made an assumption that individuals are indolent, self­centred, resistant to change, lack ambition, dislike responsibility and are naive (McCaffer et al., 2005) in Adjei (2009). Managers are, therefore, to direct and modify worker behaviour to meet organisational needs by persuading; rewarding, punishing and controlling those who do not naturally strive to learn and grow. On the contrary, Theory Y view of worker behaviour sees people as motivated by higher order growth needs. It is, therefore, the task of management to facilitate individuals to act on these needs and grow in their job. Management's essential task is to structure the job environment to allow people achieve their higher-order individual goals and accomplishing the organisational objective. McGregor saw theory Y as a way to align workers' goals with that of the organisation (Bloisi et al., 2003) in Adjei (2009).

v. McClelland's Achievement Motivation Theory

According to McClelland (1988) as quoted by (Adjei, 2009) achievement theory focused on the relationship between hunger needs and the extent to which imagery of food dominated thought processes and identified four main arousal-based, and socially developed, motives:

- The Achievement motive;
- The Power motive;
- The Affiliated motive; and
- The Avoidance motive.

The initial three motives correspond to Maslow's self-actualisation, esteem and love needs. The relative intensity of these is dependent on the individual and it also varies between different occupations. With the perception that managers are higher in achievement than affiliation, McClelland saw the achievement need (n-Arch) as the most significant for the success and growth of any nation. He used Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and subjective judgement and identified four achievement needs:

- A preference for moderate task difficulty: - Individual prefers moderate task difficulty as an incentive and this serves as the best chance to do better. Tasks which are too difficult and risky reduce the chance of success and of gaining need satisfaction. Contrary to this, when the tasks are too easy and safe, there is little challenge in task accomplishment and little satisfaction.
- Personal responsibility for performance: - Individuals prefer to attain success through their own efforts rather than teamwork or factors outside their control. Satisfaction is derived from the accomplishment of the task and not from recognition from others.
- The need for feedback: - Individuals have a clear and unambiguous feedback on how they perform. Feedback should be within reasonable time to enable individual to assess them to determine success or failure in their accomplishment of goals from which they derive satisfaction from.
- Innovativeness: - They always seek moderately challenging tasks and tend to be moving on always to more challenging things. There is a constant search for variety and for information to find new ways of doing things. These make them restless and avoid routine, and also tend to travel more. McClelland (1988) further suggested that effective managers need to be successful leaders and to influence other people. More so, they should possess a high need for power and score high on inhibition. The power in this context is directed to the organisation and concern for group goals and is being exercised on behalf of other people. The theory suggested that n-Ach is not hereditary but as result from environmental influence and has the possibility of training people to develop a greater motivation to achieve.

[...]

• Hochschule: Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University
• Note: 4.45
• Autor: Umar Auwal (Autor:in)
• Erscheinungsjahr: 2017
• Seiten: 157
• Katalognummer: V1243198
• ISBN (PDF): 9783346739704
• ISBN (Buch): 9783346739711
• Sprache: Englisch