The growing shortage of nursing staff is causing many employees in the nursing sector to be overwhelmed. Shift work, overtime and little free time cause excessive demands and demotivation. The consequences are a high level of sick leave, a high turnover rate and a drop in the quality of care.
It is therefore sometimes even more important in the healthcare sector than in other sectors to motivate and retain employees over the long term. As Kerstin Kase shows in her publication, managers in particular have a duty here. But which factors actually play a role?
Kase examines whether humor is a suitable means of motivating employees in the care industry and counteracting (internal) resignations. The author presents different leadership styles and considers the effects of humor on motivation in companies and teams.
From the content:
- Humor;
- Care;
- Motivation;
- Healthcare;
- Management style
Table of contents
1 Approach to the topic
2 The situation in the care of the elderly and the sick
3 Motivation
3.1 Motivation theories
3.2 Conscious and unconscious motivation
3.3 Conclusion
4 Motivation and emotion
5 Humor and laughter
5.1 Forms of humor
5.2 Laughter
5.3 Humor and salutogenesis
5.4 Functions of humor
5.5 Conclusion
6 The role of the leader
6.1 Leadership and motivation
6.2 Classic leadership concepts
6.3 Authoritarian leadership style
7 Leadership style and humor
7.1 Humor in the company
7.2 Advantages of a humor culture
7.3 Humor in nursing and geriatric care
7.4 Possibilities of implementing a humor concept
8 Conclusion and outlook
Bibliography
"Mind and genius evoke respect and esteem, wit and humor arouse affection and love."
David Hume (1711-1776), Scottish philosopher, economist and historian
1 Approach to the topic
In the period 2003 – 2013, the number of employees in geriatric care increased by about 40 percent (2003: approx. 712,000, 2013: approx. 1 million). Compared to 2011, there were approx. 6 percent more employees in long-term care. Federal health reporting
Growing demands on the part of companies and residents or their relatives, increasing time pressure and a lack of staff are conditions that affect each and every one of them. Shift work, frequent jumping in, a lot of overtime, little free time lead to overstrain, overload, demotivation of the employees. A high level of sick leave, a high fluctuation rate and the decline in the quality of care are the resulting consequences.
Motivating and retaining employees as well as maintaining and increasing the quality of care are central tasks of managers in the healthcare sector. But what does the word motivation mean, what factors influence it? And how are emotions related to this?
So far, it has mostly been the intellectual aspects that have played a role in companies. Emotions were at best regarded as negligible accessories. In the USA and Japan, it was recognized years ago that humor and laughter at work can have a positive effect on companies. Recently, this strategy has also slowly arrived in German companies. Humor and laughter in the company are regarded as a success strategy to master and defuse conflicts and dangerous situations in everyday working life.
Especially in crisis situations in companies, the emotions of employees resemble a rollercoaster ride. Both towards the work activity and the personal situation as well as the company, the social environment and the leadership, very different, positive as well as negative feelings arise among the employees during a change. An insensitive handling in crisis situations leads to bad-tempered, demotivated, sick employees and / or (inner) dismissal.
The implementation of the company's policy is primarily the responsibility of the managers inside and outside the institutions (management, regional managers, facility and care services). Especially in crisis situations, humor does not seem appropriate. But can a serious yet humorous approach to these situations have a positive effect on the emotions of employees? Can humor be a means of choice to motivate employees (not only) in crisis situations and to counteract (inner) dismissals?
Based on a literature search, the term motivation is first discussed and some motivation theories are examined in more detail. After explaining the relationship between motivation and emotion, different leadership styles and their impact on the motivation and emotions of employees are considered. Subsequently, the interaction of emotion and humor is examined before the effect of humor on motivation and the effect in companies, teams and conflict management is discussed.
2 The situation in the care of the elderly and the sick
Due to the demographic development (growing number of old and very elderly people), the number of people in need of care will increase in the future. Taking into account the privately insured persons in need of care, the total number of people in need of care for 2015 was 2.83 million. It is estimated that the total number of people in need of care in Germany will increase to 3.5 million by 2030 and to 4.5 million by 2050 (Federal Ministry of Health 2016: 18). Different studies start from different future perspectives. Depending on the scenario, the need for nurses is expected to be 135,000 to 214,000 additional nurses by 2025 (Federal Ministry of Health 2016: 24). The growing shortage of nurses leads to enormous overtime for most employees in the care sector, which often cannot be reduced in a timely manner. Break times can often not be taken completely or not at all during the course of the working day. In addition, the lack of workers also leads to deficiencies in the care of those to be cared for. In the care thermometer 2009 it is stated that "about four out of five nurses (...) Cannot rule out deficiencies in the last seven days." (Isfort, M.; Weidner, F. et al. 2010: 9). These conditions lead to a high rate of sick leave as well as a high turnover rate from the health profession. The dissatisfaction on the part of the caregivers as well as those to be cared for is growing. Counteracting this and creating a good working atmosphere, finding nurses and, if possible, retaining them in the long term is the goal of the companies. Domnowski summarizes the permanent stress of many employees in "helper professions" with "Time pressure, many deadlines, agitation, decision-making pressure and the need to quickly adapt to constantly changing expectations and demands... to be hired." (Domnowski 2010: 35-36). In addition, he lists stresses in the private and institutional environment as well as in the team, which affect the motivation and the physical and mental health of the employee.
3 Motivation
The term "motivation" comes from the Latin "movere" and means "to set in motion". However, the meaning of the term is more diverse and complex. Enkelmann refer to motivation as "... the ability to mobilise power reserves." (Enkelmann 2011: 13). McClelland (1987) defines a motif as "... what moves people in particular and therefore directly selects, orients and energizes their perception and indirectly their behavior." (quoted from Brandstätter / Otto 2009: 29). Motivation is often used as a concept to the explanation of action. It describes a process that is triggered by the stimulation of a motive and used as a declaration of action for the decision to carry out or refrain from an action. The more likely the goal achievement seems and the more important the goal is, the more you will be motivated. At this point, Rudolph points out the arbitrarily chosen action. Action presupposes an arbitrary decision for a particular behavior from a variety of alternatives. The chosen behavior and the associated goal can be started at different times and pursued in the course with different intensity and energy (Rudolph 2003: 5-6). The termination of this action should be the achievement of the pre-set goal, but can be stopped early by the individual. Motivation is influenced by the pursuit of balance, cognitive processes, subjective perception, emotions and personality traits (Fig.1).
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure Factors influencing motivation
(Source: own, based on Comelli / von Rosenstiel 2009: 6)
3.1 Motivation theories
A multitude of different perspectives and methods of investigation establishes a large number of different motivation theories. Epicurus, one of the earliest and still known "motivational theorists", considered the reasons and causes of motivated behavior. He founded psychological hedonism. This consists in the assumption that all our actions serve to give us pleasure or pleasure and to avoid pain (Rudolph 2003:2). Central points of our behavior are therefore positive and negative states, as they control this as an expectation of the consequences of our actions. The essence of this thought is therefore: the motivation of our behavior is to seek out positive emotions and avoid negative states (hunger, pain, etc.).
The cognitive basis of motivated action seems undisputed, since the advantages and disadvantages of one's own actions are often weighed up and the action is aligned accordingly. These behaviorist approaches are successfully used in the therapy of mental disorders.
Another aspect of looking at cognitive processes is consciousness. While behaviorist theories ignore consciousness, most other theories of motivation tend to assume that we are aware of the consequences of our own actions and that this knowledge significantly influences our behavior.
A central question of motivational psychology is the question of the importance of human emotions in motivated behavior. Rudolph describes the current state of research on the separation of motivational and emotion psychology as artificial and unhelpful. "Many phenomena of motivation are inconceivable without emotional mediation. And conversely, many emotions are not to be considered detached from motivating functions for our behavior and actions (...)" (Rudolph 2003: 10).
3.1.1 Pyramid of needs according to Maslow
One of the best-known motivation theories is the pyramid of needs according to Maslow (Fig.2). It forms five different classes of needs, which build on each other in a clear hierarchy and the activation of higher needs depends on whether lower-ranking needs are sufficiently satisfied. The pyramid represents people's basic needs in terms of their priorities. If the lower level is satisfied, the next step is to try to satisfy the needs of the next higher category. Man is therefore never really "happy without desire". However, this pyramid is not to be understood as a rigid system. The transitions from one category to the next are fluid, the system is more like a dynamic model. Laufer points out that drives for action can also be overlaid by moral and / or ethical principles and thus not only fall back on the current needs. With regard to work motivation, it can thus be concluded that employees whose workplace is secure and who have a good salary are motivated to increase their status. Employees with an insecure workplace situation, e.B. due to fixed-term contracts or insolvency of the company, may be less motivated to do a good job and may mentally work on the inner dismissal.
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure Pyramid of needs according to Maslow
(Source: own)
3.1.2 The ERG Theory
Clayton Alderfer revised Maslow's pyramid of needs and founded the ERG theory. He summarized three groups of core needs. Among the existential needs (existence) it summarizes the basic needs that secure material existence. These correspond to the lowest two levels of Maslow's pyramid of needs. Above this are the relationship needs (relatedness), which concern interpersonal interaction. Love, affection, power and influence belong in this group. Growth needs (Growth) include all needs for personal development and development. This stage is to be equated with the stage of self-realization according to Maslow. Unlike Maslow, Alderfer does not place needs in a clear hierarchy. On the contrary, he emphasizes that several stages of needs can be active at the same time and that value can come into play through cultural differences in different strengths (Kirchler, Walenta, 2010: 21ff.)
3.1.3 The theory of performance motivation
John Atkinson founded his theory of performance motivation on the basis of Hull and Levin. He is also influenced by Miller's conflict model. Weiner describes this approach as "... resulting tendency of an emotional conflict between the hope of success and the fear of failure..." (Weiner 1994: 152). "Performance motivation is defined as an effort to increase one's own efficiency in all those areas of activity or to keep it as high as possible in which a quality standard is considered binding and whose execution can succeed or fail." (Rosenstiel, 2007; quoted from Kirchler, Walenta 2010: 24). The main motives of performance motivation are hope for success and fear of failure. According to McClelland, people with high performance motivation are characterized by high but achievable goals and the need for feedback on work performance. These are more important to them than rewarding success and popularity. Elementary factors in the theory of performance motivation are the performance motive, the probability of success and the incentive of success. The performance motive is defined by Atkinson as the performance motive as a "Ability to experience pride in achievements made." (Atkinson 1964, quoted from Weiner 1994:153). Weiner draws the conclusion that the performance motive is an emotional disposition. The probability of success is based on a cognitive target expectation, it is assumed that an instrumental action will lead to the goal. Various studies investigate which factors influence this target expectation (information on the difficulty of the task, manipulation of the actual difficulty of the task). The last determinant in performance motivation is the incentive of success. Here, it is believed that a difficult task in solving leads to a more intense sense of pride than solving a simple task.
The theory of performance motivation is practically applied, for example, in employee participation programs (quality circles, equity investments, etc.) and in work design (job enlargement, job rotation, job enrichment, etc.).
3.1.4 The Rubicon model
Heckhausen (1989) formulated the currently most complete model of motivation, which is referred to the Rubicon model (see Fig. 3). This model tries to explain how goals are selected, the realization planned, the plans carried out and the results evaluated. This model distinguishes between four phases: In the predecisional phase, a selection of wishes and / or motives to be fulfilled is made. This is done on the basis of weighing up the maximum benefit. Subsequently, the alternative course of action is selected.
The pre-actional phase (also called the post-decisional phase) is characterized by the objective. The implementation of the goal realization is weighed according to the favorableness of the situation and not always realized immediately. The actional phase refers to the action to achieve the desired goals while the post-action phase is characterized by the evaluation. Each phase of the course of action is assigned a state of consciousness (mind-set). This concept of the state of consciousness refers to implicit cognitive orientations that arise from being involved with the phase-typical task. In the predecisional phase, the weighing state of consciousness occurs. When planning concrete approaches in the pre-actional phase, the planning state of consciousness occurs. Several studies show that the balancing and planning state of consciousness leads to different results (Brandstätter / Otto 2009: 153). Achtzinger / Gollwitzer point to various studies that show that people in a planning state of consciousness evaluate more optimistically than people in a deliberative state of consciousness. In the planning state of consciousness, there are more often significant overestimations of one's own abilities (intelligence, skills), while a deliberative state of consciousness rather leads to realistic assessments (Brandstätter / Otto 2009: 155).
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure Action phases in the Rubicon model and relevant theories
(Source: own)
3.1.5 Expectation-times-value theories
The expectation-times-value theories are based on Lewin's field theory, which Atkinson from the point of view of the expectation of Success or failure has developed into a performance motivation theory. The basis of the theory is the assumption that a person chooses the alternative course of action from which he expects the greatest benefit. In most cases, those action goals are targeted that are safely achievable. Very ambitious goals, for which the achievement of the goal is considered to be unlikely, are therefore usually not tackled and goals are used whose attainability seems certain and which suggest at least a satisfactory result. The risk choice model, on the other hand, assumes that maximum risk when achieving a goal is associated with maximum pride in success. In the approach to the selection of tasks, the people differ. "While people with hope of success actively seek success, employees with fear of failure primarily strive to avoid failure." (Kirchler, Walenta 2010: 46).
3.1.6 The theory of goal setting
The theory of goal setting to Locke and Latham deals with the intensity of action realization based on the assumption that goals have a motivating effect. In particular, various studies have shown that there is a connection to effort, ambition and perseverance in achieving goals. Specific and challenging goals lead to greater effort. Locke and Latham distinguish between the goal difficulty and the task difficulty. They postulate a linear relationship between goal difficulty and performance, whereby it should be noted that this relationship only applies if the goal achievement is realistic. The goal binding decreases when the attainability of goals seems impossible (Kirchler, Walenta 2010: 62 ff.). Sevincer / Oettingen assume that people who have set themselves binding goals have comparatively higher willingness to exert themselves, higher performance and more well-being (Sevincer / Oettingen: In Brandstätter / Otto 2009: 37). Goal formulation, goal structure, goal content and goal realization are essential aspects for the success of goal achievement. Different goals can form target hierarchies that have short- and long-term goals that can influence each other.
"The clearer the employees' ideas about the work goal, the greater the chance of achieving it, and the more recognizable the work success becomes for them." (Laufer 2013: 117). The formulation of work objectives should be strong, consistent, motivating, unambiguous, positive and controllable. Laufer schematically illustrates the process of achieving goals (Fig.4):
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure Goal-oriented leadership
(Source: Laufer 2013: 110)
Target agreements serve the participation of the employee in the considerations for the achievement of goals. The employee is informed about the goal of his task, which leads to a higher acceptance. These targets do not have to be exclusively economic, but can also include behaviour. However, these cannot always be formulated and measured so precisely, and are therefore less important in terms of acceptance. An important factor in the work with target agreements is the feedback. Feedback discussions should be a regular part of the communication to praise the employee in his work or to criticize constructively. Positive feedback can increase belief in self-efficacy and boost motivation.
3.2 Conscious and unconscious motivation
For a long time, there has been a discussion in research about whether human behavior takes place in consciousness or whether processes outside of perception are involved. David McClelland, a pioneer of modern motivational research who, like Freud, assumes that motivational processes take place outside of conscious perception, joined the discussion with his collaborators with the hypothesis that human behavior is regulated by two independent motivation systems. This led to the distinction between implicit and explicit motifs. Implicit motives are regulated without the necessary involvement of consciousness. Implicit motifs can be raised through the TAT process created by McClelland or the multi-motif grid. Explicit motives, on the other hand, are deliberately controlled and can be collected by means of questionnaires (Fig.5). Schäffer summarizes that explicit and implicit motives are independent constructs that predict different areas of behavior and work together in action control (Brandstätter / Otto 2009: 33).
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure Characteristics of intuitive and analytical-rational information processing compared
(Source: Brandstätter / Otto 2009: 34 (after Epstein et al. 1996))
The implicit performance motive supports performance-related activities by aligning, energizing and selecting behavior. These motives are very behavioral, they have little influence on conscious attitude (Schmalt, Langens 2009: 102 f.). People with a strong implicit performance motive are mainly looking for tasks whose success or failure depends very much on their own skills and for which continuous feedback is given. People with an explicit performance motive are designed to maintain a positive self-concept as much as possible. The explicit performance motives are less behavioral, the final result of the task to be solved is in the foreground.
Although both motives are at the center of independent motivation systems, they can interact with each other. Schmalt / Langens refer to a well-documented hypothesis that explicit motifs channel the expression of implicit motifs (Schmalt, Langens 2009: 108).
3.3 Conclusion
Motivation is a process that is triggered by a corresponding motive and serves as a declaration of action for actions or omissions. Motivation is controlled by implicit and explicit factors. The variety of motivation theories shows the most diverse approaches to the topic. While Maslow refers to the fulfillment of hierarchical needs, while the Rubicon model is currently the most comprehensive model, which tries to map the entire course of action from the selection of the goal to the planning and execution of the necessary actions to the evaluation of the result the entire process.
Another distinguishing feature of motivation theories is the aspect of individual personality traits. For example, the theory of performance motivation indicates that people differ in terms of performance in terms of the extent to which they seek or avoid performance-related situations (e.B. pride in achievements vs. shame at failure).
4 Motivation and emotion
The word emotion refers to a mental arousal, a state of feeling. It is derived from the Latin word emovere, which means as much as excite, set in motion. Emotions are psychophysiological phenomena triggered by a conscious or unconscious perception of an event or situation. Emotions are affective (partial loss of action control) and more short-lived and intense compared to moods.
Robert Plutchnik (1927 – 2006), an American psychologist, conducted research on violence, suicide, emotions and psychotherapy. In his emotion theory, he assumes that emotions have a genetic basis and control the adaptation of behavior. He names eight basic emotions and summarizes them in a three-dimensional model. The eight emotions can be arranged on a cone and can be graded due to their intensity. Towards the top, the emotions are no longer so intense and are therefore no longer so easily distinguishable.
Brandstätter / Otto point out that "Without motivation no emotion and without emotion no motivation" (Brandstätter / Otto 2009: 13). Both energize and control behavior. In addition, both have a signal function that accompanies the adaptation to existing situations, e.B. joy when a task has been done correctly or disappointment when it has been processed incorrectly. Frijda (1986) places the action aspect at the center of emotion psychology "The core of an emotion is readiness to act and the prompting of action plans; an emotion gives priority to one or a few actions to which it gives urgency. In this way, it can prevent or compete with other mental processes or actions." (quoted from Brandstätter / Otto 2009: 13-14).
Rothermund / Eder, on the other hand, have published a component model of emotion (Fig. 6). This model serves to distinguish emotions from other psychic states, e.B. cognitions. Emotion is seen as a multidimensional construct that includes reactions on different levels: the experience component, the cognitive component, the physiological component, the expressive component as well as the motivational component. The experience component is classified by some scientists as unscientific, since findings of this component can be obtained primarily from subjective reports (e.B. LeDoux), other researchers try to capture this component by means of statistical methods. The cognitive component is characterized by evaluations and value judgments. The emotion depends on whether an event is rated positively (in the sense of good, pleasant) or negative (bad, unpleasant). Clore & Ortony (2000) point out that emotional experience is often influenced by several cognitive processes, which the person does not necessarily have to be aware of (Rothermund, Eder 2011: 170). The physiological component is explained by the akitvation of the central nervous system as an emotion-driven adaptation to events. In order to be able to prove reaction profiles of emotions, there have been many studies. However, these showed that only positive and negative emotions can be reliably distinguished. "An emotional specificity of physiological reactions is therefore not supported by the current state of research." (Rothermund, Eder 2011: 171). The currently much-discussed concept of the limbic system has also proven to be of little use. The expressive component of the model refers to facial expressions and voice. Galati Miceli & Sini (2001) assume that there is an innate basis of emotion-specific facial expressions. (Rothermund, Eder 2011: 172). "However, a person's mimic expression is very strongly influenced by the social context and social rules of representation, which is why a direct conclusion from a person's expression on their state of mind does not allow." (Fridlund & Russell, 2006, quoted from Rothermund, Eder 2011: 172). As a motivational component, emotions are seen as proven behavioral strategies in dealing with recurring challenges. As a behavioral strategy, however, emotions do not refer to concrete behavior, but rather to abstract behavioral functions.
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure The component model of emotion
(Source: Rothermund, Eder 2011: 168)
"Behind the component model of emotion is the assumption that emotions have special reaction profiles. (...) This assumption of reaction coherence suggests that the different reaction components of emotional reactions are statistically related at the different levels (...)" (Rothermund, Eder 2011: 175). This connection has not yet been proven in research and is therefore questionable. The sum of the components results in three functions for emotions: action-guiding, informative and social-communicative. For this reason, knowledge about emotions in managers is quite desirable to find employees and at best to force an emotional connection to the workplace. "When it comes to setting clear signs or pointing out boundaries, arguing is often futile. Then emotions are often necessary to shake up the interlocutors and to give the matter the appropriate weight. (...) Feeling and mind are dependent on each other. Those who only follow their minds are just as socially incompatible as those who only follow their feelings." (Blochberger 2010: 8f).
Then Hill developed his model of "emotionomics", which should lead to better decisions and better communication through the targeted use of empathy and emotions in market development, product design, etc. but also in corporate culture and employee management.
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