There is a multitude of psychological theories and approaches, from which various forms of counseling and therapy have developed over time, some of which are used more, some less in practice. All of these approaches have a common starting point: they want to help people alleviate or remedy existing problems. However, this is attempted in a wide variety of ways in both therapy and counseling. This paper considers three of these approaches in the field of counseling: systemic counseling, client-centered counseling, and behavioral or cognitive-behavioral counseling. It will be shown to what extent these approaches are similar and in which points they differ. In the first section, the most important historical developments of the three approaches will be briefly described, followed by a more detailed description and comparison of the theories underlying the concepts. Subsequently, it will be shown that the different theoretical foundations of the three approaches are also reflected in their application and their specific methods. In a final conclusion, the most important differences of the counseling approaches will be briefly presented again, and important areas of application in the educational field will be outlined.
Table of contents
1. Introduction
2. Historical development
3. Theory and image of man
4. Methods and application
5. Conclusion
Bibliography
1. Introduction
There are a large number of psychological theories and approaches, from which various forms of counseling and therapy have developed over time, some of which are used more, some less in practice. All these approaches have a common starting point: They want to help people alleviate or fix existing problems. However, this is tried both in therapy and in counseling in a variety of ways.
The present work considers three of these approaches in the field of consulting: Systemic counseling, client-centered counseling and behavioral counseling. The aim is to show to what extent these approaches are similar and in which points they differ.
In the first section, the most important historical developments of the three approaches are briefly discussed in order to then describe and compare the theories underlying the concepts in more detail. Subsequently, it will be shown that the different theoretical foundations of the three approaches are also reflected in their application and their specific methods.
In a final conclusion, the most important differences in the consulting approaches are briefly presented again, as well as important areas of application in the pedagogical field are outlined.
2 Historical development
For a better understanding of the three different theories, the historical development of each approach will first be briefly outlined here.
2.1 Client-centered consulting
The client-centered form of counseling and therapy goes back to Rogers, who already in 1940 in a lecture at the University of Minnesota spoke of a form of therapy that should enable the client to find his own solutions to his problems (McLeod, 2004). This approach was called "non-directive" in the beginning. The predominant form of therapy in the USA at that time was psychoanalysis, which, however, could no longer meet the need for therapeutic measures, especially after 1945, when a large number of soldiers returned to their homeland. Thus, Rogers' approach quickly developed into the most important "non-medical form of counseling in the USA" (McLeod, 2004, p.131).
Rogers continuously developed his theory and thus formed the new name "client-centered therapy" in 1951. On the one hand, this was intended to replace the original term "non-directive", as it was often misunderstood in the sense of "not -active". On the other hand, this name also referred to the change in focus that took place: While previously the behavior of the consultant had been strongly assumed, the consideration was now more strongly on the processes that took place in the client himself (McLeod, 2004).
The third important phase in the development of client-centered consulting took place at the end of the 50s. A more comprehensive model of the therapeutic relationship developed, taking into account both the earlier ideas about consultant husbandry and the client's processes (McLeod, 2004).
More recently, the ideas of the client-centric approach have also been applied to groups or organizations, which in turn has given rise to the term "person-centered" rather than "client-centered" (Mearns & Thorne, 1988 quoted from McLeod, 2004).
2.2 Behavioral counseling
The roots of the behavioral-theoretical approach lie in the behaviorist psychology of J.B. Watson, who in 1919 explained the behaviorist point of view with his publications, which quickly gained in importance. In its early days, behavioral research was strongly interested in experiments with animals. The aim was to find out how animals learn in order to be able to transfer these findings to humans. Thus developed the principles of classical and operant conditioning, which go back to Pavlov and Skinner respectively (McLeod, 2004). While the behavioral methods in the 30s and 40s were used almost exclusively in research and no separate form of counseling had yet been developed, psychoanalysis and client-centered therapy were predominant in the actual counseling and therapy work (McLeod, 2004).
The cognitive aspects of this approach were mainly shaped by Beck and Ellis, who described the influence of cognition on behavior in the 60s and 70s (McLeod, 2004). Thus, the previously strongly based theory based on learning principles, which saw a direct connection between stimulus and behavior, developed into a cognitive theory in which above all the thoughts that affect a certain stimulus influence behavior.
From this approach, a variety of methods developed over time, which will be examined in more detail in Section 4.2.
2.3 Systemic consulting
Systemic consulting developed later than the other two forms of consulting. The founder of systems theory is the biologist von Bertalanffy, who established the "General Systems Theory" in 1957. In contrast to the two theories described above, this did not only refer to psychological aspects, but also established a very general definition of systems. Thus Bertalanffy defines a system as "[...] a unit consisting of elements, which is to be understood from more than the mere sum of these elements. It also consists of the relationship of these elements with each other and with other systems. These interactions are not exclusively the result of the properties of the elements, but also result from the relationship of the elements with each other and can develop something new that is no longer due to the properties of the elements." (Wikipedia (a)).
The forerunner of systemic counseling in the psychological field is family therapy, which has always tried to solve problems within families involving all family members (Sickendiek, Engel & Nestmann, 1999).
The foundations of systemic therapy and counseling were shaped by Gregory Bateson, as well as by the approaches of Steve de Shazer, who founded the solution-oriented approach. Further influences were created by Kurt Ludewig and Paul Watzlawick, among others.
3 Theory and image of man
In the following sections, the various theories underlying the approaches will be discussed and the human images of the different points of view will be compared.
3.1 Client-centered consulting
Client-centered counseling is an affective approach (George & Cristiani, 1986) that springs from a humanistic view of man (Straumann, 2004) and, in contrast to systemic counseling, represents an individual-oriented perspective (Straumann, 2004). The term "affective approach" means that the focus is on the feelings of the client, while the thoughts and behavior are largely neglected, unlike, for example, the behavioral approach. What these two approaches have in common, however, is that they emphasize the "here & now" and usually leave the past out of the world (George & Cristiani, 1986). In addition, both Rogers (quoted from George & Cristiani, 1986) and representatives of behavioral and systemic directions assume that an individual can control and control his behavior.
The view of man, which is reflected in Rogers' client-centered approach, can be described in four main statements (according to McLeod, 2004):
1. Every individual is valuable and has a right to his personal opinion.
2. Behavior is always consistent with the perception of the self and the situation of an individual.
3. Every individual has an innate tendency to update. Thus, everyone strives for growth, health and self-realization, if sufficient conditions are met for this.
4. Every person is inherently good and trustworthy.
The last assumption denotes another difference to behavioral models that consider humans to be neutral from birth (George & Cristiani, 1986). A person needs advice when his self-image is not congruent with the experiences and feelings he experiences.
The client-centered consulting pursues the goal of enabling people to use their capacities for "normal development" (George & Cristiani, 1986). The consultant should encourage the client to change his self-concept and thus accept his own feelings, which is a strongly process-oriented approach. Here, too, the difference to behavioral theoretical advice is noticeable, which, as explained in the next section, is strongly goal-oriented.
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