History, Challenges and Benefits of Pastoralism

Zusammenfassung , 2022 , 10 Seiten , Note: 90%

Umweltwissenschaften

Pastoralism is the practice of herding as the primary economic activity of a society. Pastoralists often rely on secondary resources from the animals for food, e.g., blood or milk, or use the by-products like wool to trade for food. They use sheep and goats for food, as is camel milk. Historically, pastoral communities from East Africa and the Horn of Africa (like the Maasai and the Samburu) have been exploiting animal blood for food since time immemorial. Some forage for food while others do small-scale farming to supplement their diet. Like foragers, many pastoralists are forced to live in the world’s marginal environments globally; though not all not all pastoral contexts are characterized by high levels environmental uncertainty.

Introduction

According to (Dictionary.com, 2021), pastoralism is the practice of herding as the primary economic activity of a society. Lumenlearning.com (2021) defines pastoralism as a subsistence strategy dependent on the herding of animals, particularly sheep, goats and cattle, although there are pastoralists who herd reindeer, horses, yak, camel, and llamas. Sayre (2013) points out that among anthropologists, pastoralism is defined according to the relationships between humans, animals, and the land. Therefore, pastoralism is a way of life in which a people in search of pasture and water herd and depend on their livestock as a source of livelihood.

Pastoralists often rely on secondary resources from the animals for food, e.g., blood or milk, or use the by-products like wool to trade for food (Lumenlearning.com, 2021). They use sheep and goats for food, as is camel milk (Nyariki et al., 2015). Historically, pastoral communities from East Africa and the Horn of Africa (like the Maasai and the Samburu) have been exploiting animal blood for food since time immemorial (Fao.org, 2021). According to Lumenlearning.com (2021), blood is not only highly nutritious but also a renewable resource. Some forage for food while others do small-scale farming to supplement their diet (Lumenlearning.com, 2021). Like foragers, many pastoralists are forced to live in the world's marginal environments globally (Lumenlearning.com, 2021); though not all not all pastoral contexts are characterized by high levels environmental uncertainty (Gillin, 2021).

History and Distribution of Pastoralist Communities around the World

Generally, grasslands account for about 40% of the Earth's terrestrial surface (Hogan, 2010). Homewood, Trench and Brockington (2012) stated that the arid and semi-arid lands of East African are home to a variety of the world's pastoralists and most remarkable savanna wildlife populations. The origin of pastoralism as a socio-economic production system is deeply founded in Greek history. As a matter of fact, the earliest Greek word probata (npopoTo), which initially meant livestock in general and etymologically 'that which moves ahead', remained intact in Modern Greek and refers to sheep (Hadjigeorgiou, 2011).

Koch Madsen (2014) mentioned that for almost a millennium the economy of the Norse Greenlanders has depended on a blend of pastoral farming with hunting and some fishing. In European literature the pastoral persisted as a distinct genre and self-conscious literary tradition from Theocritus and Virgil (Scafoglio, 2017) through the eighteenth century (Sayre, 2013). Pastoralism in Europe is supported by the Common Agriculture Policy (CAP) (Fao.org, 2021) that was launched in 1962 (Europa.eu, 2021). In the European pastoral tradition, the central symbol of the shepherd epitomized a fiction of nonviolent leisure in plentiful nature prior to the corrupting influence of wealth and status (Sayre, 2013).

Huntsinger et al. (2012) mentioned that pastoralism in the United States began coincidently with the introduction of intense ecological change resulting from colonization in the sixteenth century. Diamond and Ordunio (1999) stated that because Native Americans did not live in close proximity to domestic animals, they failed to develop immunity to diseases, most importantly smallpox that ravaged their populations during the European invasion. In pre-Columbian North America [ancient cultures located south of the present-day United States border (Monah.us, 2021)], however, there were no pastoralist societies because no livestock species formed the basis for a nomadic pastoralism, whether milch or carnivorous (Sayre, 2013).

Central Asia has around 250 million hectares of pasture, including some parts of Russia, Mongolia and China and more than half of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan where pastoralism is a way of life for a lot of people (FAO, 2021). According to FAO (2021), 90% of the world's yaks are reared in this cold desert region, together with camels, horse, goat and Tibetan sheep. In some areas of Central Asia, particularly the dry and relatively inhospitable Eastern Steppes of Mongolia, horses today form an essential part of pastoral lifeways (Bold, 2012). Negev Bedouin (from the Negev Desert of southern Israel) depend on nomadic pastoralism (the herding of sheep, goats, camels and cattle for milk and milk products; wool and hair for weaving carpets and tents; and traditional animal slaughtering) for their way of life and livelihood (Degen, 2021). In Kenya, the Ariaal are a unique example of pastoral communities that live on the slopes and plains (Smith, 1997). They are a northern Kenyan pastoralist community (Sarkar, 2018) which claim descent from Samburu (Brett, 2013). The Ariaal are successful because they practice a highly diversified method of animal husbandry (Fratkin, 1998). They herd and move around with camel, cattle, sheep and goats (Lumenlearning.com, 2021). The Ariaal nomads divide their herds and pasture them in different places, a practice that guarantees herd survivability against disease and drought (McPeak et al., 2004). This practice is also used to boost growth of seasonal vegetation, which further provides the Ariaal herdsmen with trade items (Adano, 2012).

General Characteristics of Pastoralism

Pastoralists generally live in extended families in order to have enough people to take care of all of the duties linked with animal care and other domestic chores (Fernandez-Gimenez et al., 2021). Division of labor is gender based (Scelza et al., 2021). Wealth is determined by herd size and often the number of wives and offspring a man has [(Degen, 2021); (Little, 2021)]. Kin relations are patrilineal (Mattison et al., 2021), which means that the father's side of the family is reckoned as kin (Vocabulary.com, 2021). Kimani et al., 2021) mentioned that in African cultures such as the Pokot, cattle are used to pay dowry in traditional marriages. Among pastoralists and semi­pastoralists below the Sahara, livestock traditionally constitute the bulk of the bride price, and is symbolically the most significant aspect of property transfer (Goldschmidt, 1974). The exchange of cattle as part of a marriage helps to maintain herd diversity and distribute the wealth among the people (Aklilu and Catley, 2009).

The concept of ownership is restricted to animals, housing and some domestic goods (Little, 2021). Traditionally, ownership of cattle among Fulani pastoralists (just like many African pastoral communities) is a symbol of social status (Dimelu et al., 2017). Land is communal (Flintan, 2021) and many pastoralists contend that they have travel rights over lands because of centuries-old migratory patterns that supersede modern land ownership (Gillin, 2021). While some pastoralists are more sedentary (Fratkin et al., 2004), most are nomadic, moving to temporary pastures as needed or seasonally (Lumenlearning.com, 2021). Most nomads set up semi-permanent camps with each move as decisions about when to move are made communally (Lamprey and Reid, 2004).

According to Galaty (2021), most pastoralists are monotheistic (but not all of them); usually the belief is tied closely to their animals. The Indo-European pastoralists arrived in India around the 2nd Millennium (Shu-hui, 2010). In their ancient culture, cattle had huge economic importance that was echoed in their religion (Britannica, 2021). According to Britannica (2021), their strong religious views (against the sacrificing, slaughtering and eating of milk producing cows) helped fundamentally change the perspective of India. In India, millennia long religious transformation of the cow has led to the animal's status as a sacred symbol progressively increase and the perception of its sanctity grow in complexity (Kennedy, Sharma, and Phillips, 2018). Apart from the usage of livestock as dowry in traditional wedding ceremonies (Goldschmidt, 1974; Aklilu and Catley, 2009), African pastoral communities like the (West) Pokot and Maasai use goats to perform sacrifices rituals to appease their ancestors/deities [(Mutsotso, Kimaiyo and Gaciuki, 2014); (de Wit, 2020)].

One way that East African pastoral communities have devised to help with social cohesion is age­sets. An age set is a group of individuals of roughly the same age that are given specific duties within the society at large (Oxford, 2021). In the case of the Ariaal, there are three age-sets for each sex: for males the age sets are boy, warrior, elder; for females, girl, adolescent, married (Lumenlearning.com, 2021). Each age set has a specific set of clothes, diet, duties and socializing rules. For instance, adolescent girls are not allowed to associate with any males, including their father while warriors are not allowed to associate with women, including their mother (Lumenlearning.com, 2021). Such practices not only guarantees the distribution of labor among members of the group, but serves as a form of population control.

Challenges of Pastoralism

More than 30 million pastoralists living in the Horn of Africa (Cavalerie et al., 2021), and yet many of these groups face incredible challenges when it comes to access to education (Africaeducationaltrust.org, (2021). The lifestyle pastoralists revolves around their animals, and the essential movement through traditional grazing lands so as to support their herds (Cavalerie et al., 2021). Several challenges faced by pastoralists arise as a result the predominant belief that they should conform to a more sedentary lifestyle (Assal, 2009), but asking a community to choose between education for their children and their livelihood is an impossible and unfair task (Kibert et al., 2011). This outlook inhibits lots of pastoralists from going to school, and as a consequence, these communities display some of the highest rates of illiteracy in the Horn of Africa (Africaeducationaltrust.org, 2021).

According to Lawinsider.com (2021), cattle rustling is the theft or planning, organizing, attempting, helping or abetting the stealing of livestock by anyone from one country or community to another, where the theft is accompanied by dangerous weapons and violence. Kimani et al. (2021) points out that in West Pokot, both men and women have repeatedly played substitutable roles in cattle rustling. According to Kimani et al., 2021), women also depend on this ancient practice as a source of livelihood for their families. Cattle rustling has numerous causes that include; the availability of guns, commercialization of cattle raids, political incitement, poverty, traditional values and illiteracy (Cheserek, Odenyo and Omondi, 2012). Cheserek et al., (2012) found out that some socio-economic impacts associated to this vice included; periodic migration, erosion of cultural values and the adoption of positive alternatives like education and farming.

The pastoral cultures, and the ecosystems on which they earn a living from, are strained by both loss of biodiversity and land degradation thanks to increased resource exploitation, infrastructural development and other types of human activities that create obstacles to livestock mobility and pasture use (UNEP, 2021). Pastoralists in East Africa are some of the most affected communities by both extreme climatic events and poverty in all its manifestation (Homewood et al., 2012). However, because of the low to moderate consumption rate, the sustainability of pastoralism is high if the herders could have access to enough land (Lumenlearning.com, 2021).

Overgrazing has gradually become a problem for pastoralists owing to increased population and herd sizes and reduced land access (and other land use) due to factors such as degradation and conversion (Hogan, 2010). The impacts of overgrazing include loss of vegetative cover and associated soil erosion in the most extreme cases, with negative impacts on wild grassland species as well as inland waterways, which can suffer from sedimentation (Tsegaye, 2019). In less severe cases, overgrazing can lead to a shift in the composition of grassland species with high nutritional value species becoming less predominant while less palatable plants increase in number (Michalk et al., 2019). A study of pastoral systems in northern Nigeria, for example, revealed that while overgrazing was not reducing biodiversity, it was changing the composition of the ecosystem (Ikhuoso et al., 2020).

Herders in the sub-Sahara periodically have conflicts revolving around access to water. Loss of access to water sources among the pastoralists in the Upper West Region of Ghana, for instance, has always be a problem for both herdsmen and their herds (Fielmua, Bandie & Ziemah, 2014). Many pastoralists in Kenya have also increasingly become vulnerable to water stresses and related risks (Opiyo, Mureithi and Ngugi, 2011). According to Opiyo et al. (2011), vulnerability of pastoralists to drought and other natural stressors, and loss of range resilience is ascribed to water scarcity and inaccessibility that have undermined the previously effective traditional practices and survival tactics.

Hogan (2010) mentioned that the two main types of livestock-wildlife conflicts in pastoral systems are either competition with other grazers for water and fodder or predators who feed on livestock. Conflict with other grazers tends to be most noticeable during periods of stress such as drought (Zerga et al., 2018). During such periods, Turner and Schlecht, (2019) explain that it is common for pastoralists to move herds into protected areas in search of water and fodder bringing about direct competition with wildlife.

Modern education provision often ignores the needs of some pastoralist communities, and is inappropriate to their mobile way of life. Schools with all year round classes in Tanzanian, for instance, does not accommodate pastoralist communities (Bishop, 2007). School hours do not allow for the domestic duties of pastoralist children (Siele, Swift and Kratli, 2013).

Modernization theory as promoted in the West and in the East in the aftermath of World War II and within the framework of early post-colonial ‘development decades' was inspired by the aim of changing people's lifestyles to attain higher levels of production and welfare (Kreutzmann, 2013). Kreutzmann (2013) mentions that nomadism was one of the main targets simply because both capitalist development experts and communist central planners shared the same values when it came to the settling of nomads. In the past, while relatively equal access to communal rangeland resources was possible (Rigby, 1992), underlying factors (such rangeland fragmentation, boundary formation, climate change, violent conflict, and rangeland degradation, as well as political marginalization and forced settlement schemes) have created resources and mobility constraints for pastoralists who are increasingly dependent on livestock mobility [(Galvin, Reid, Behnke and Hobbs, 2008); (Reid, Fernandez-Gimenez and Galvin, 2014); (Catley, Lind and Scoones, 2013); (Watson, 2010); (Kimiti, Hodge, Herrick, Beh and Abbott, 2017); (Lovett, 2015)].

Benefits of Pastoralism

Despite the environmental challenges facing pastoral systems, pastoralists have traditionally managed dry-lands sustainably and delivered a number of positive benefits for biodiversity (Ortega-Argueta et al., 2016). Practices such as sustainable grazing usually increase diversity of species and maintain ecosystem structures (Hogan, 2010). According to Hogan (2010), pastoralism can also contribute positively to the reduction of disasters such as fires, drought and flooding through the active management of vegetative cover.

Livestock contributes approximately half of the mean yearly income, with off-farm work and farming ranking second and third, in that order, except in Mara, where wildlife-based revenue contributes around 20% income through all wealth categories (Homewood et al., 2012). Regardless of the commonly held opinions that pastoralism fails to exploit the productive potential of livestock, the value of pastoralism should not be underrated for they contributes considerably to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of many developing country economies (Hogan, 2010).

Pastoralism is characterized by extensive land use (Dong et al., 2011). Livestock are usually moved to pasture; fodder is not brought to them (Suttie et al., 2005). Production is for more than meat and milk. Some animals are used as beasts of burden, while others are used for their fur. Animal products are for both personal use and trade (DeMello, 2021).

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• Note: 90%
• Autor: Brian Ambale (Autor:in)
• Erscheinungsjahr: 2022
• Seiten: 10
• Katalognummer: V1220655
• ISBN (PDF): 9783346653208
• Sprache: Englisch
• Schlagworte: history, challenges, benefits, pastoralism