Scientists have used biotechnology for centuries to enhance the production, availability and quality of food and medicine. Some conventional biotechnology techniques that has been documented for decades include the use of microorganism in fermentation to make bread, wine, or applying rennin to make cheese. However, in recent times, the development of modern biotechnology has involved powerful new techniques better known as Molecular Biology that allows scientists to tackle the previous goals with more finesse and speed such as recombinant DNA and genetic engineering, cell fusion, bioprocess and structurally-based molecular design.
Given that the technology is new, has immense potential, is rapidly developing, and can be applied to all living beings, it can be used for beneficial purposes but there are also risks. It is a sophisticated technology that needs advanced laboratory facilities and particular environmental conditions that require investment. Modern biotechnology has been particularly successfully used and applied in food, agriculture, medicine and pharmacy. Because modern biotechnology is still considered new technology and the advancement in these areas has been so rapid, it has been the object of some doubts, fears, concerns as well as an intense and divisive debate worldwide on the potential risks to human health, the environment and society.
Modern biotechnology has been classified as a complex emerging issue that exhibits high salience combined with limited knowledge on part of the public. Jacques Diouf, the FAO Director-General, in the foreword of the FAO Ethic Series, mentioned that technological advances and organizational changes affecting food and agriculture systems over the past years have been both radical and rapid; their repercussions, however, will be felt for a long time to come and, in many cases, the consequences may be irreversible. Science continues to broaden our horizons, offering us new options that invariably give rise to controversy.
INTRODUCTION
Scientists have used biotechnology for centuries to enhance the production, availability and quality of food and medicine. Some conventional biotechnology techniques that has been documented for decades include the use of microorganism in fermentation to make bread, wine, or applying rennin to make cheese.1 However, in recent times, the development of modern biotechnology has involved powerful new techniques better known as Molecular Biology that allows scientists to tackle the previous goals with more finesse and speed such as recombinant DNA and genetic engineering, cell fusion, bioprocess and structurally-based molecular design. Given that the technology is new, has immense potential, is rapidly developing, and can be applied to all living beings, it can be used for beneficial purposes but there are also risks.2 It is a sophisticated technology that needs advanced laboratory facilities and particular environmental conditions that require investment. Modern biotechnology has been particularly successfully used and applied in food, agriculture, medicine and pharmacy. Because modern biotechnology is still considered new technology and the advancement in these areas has been so rapid, it has been the object of some doubts, fears, concerns as well as an intense and divisive debate worldwide on the potential risks to human health, the environment and society. Modern biotechnology has been classified as a complex emerging issue that exhibits high salience combined with limited knowledge on part of the public. Jacques Diouf, the FAO Director-General, in the foreword of the FAO Ethic Series,3 mentioned that technological advances and organizational changes affecting food and agriculture systems over the past years have been both radical and rapid; their repercussions, however, will be felt for a long time to come and, in many cases, the consequences may be irreversible. Science continues to broaden our horizons, offering us new options that invariably give rise to controversy.
ETHICAL ISSUES
Basic categories of moral or ethical concerns regarding modern biotechnology fall into two classes: intrinsic and extrinsic.4
EXTRINSIC CONCERNS
Extrinsic objection refers to the concerns regarding the application of the technologies such as the possible risks of different applications of biotechnology, consumer right and patenting issues. All these issues need to be addressed as they have far-reaching consequences on the safety of humans, the environment and society. This also includes Environmental concerns, Socioeconomic, Scientific uncertainties, Consumer' right to food safety and information, Patenting.
INTRINSIC CONCERNS
Intrinsic objection alleged that the process of modern biotechnology is objectionable in itself. This belief is associated with the unnaturalness claim, changing nature and playing ‘God'. People's beliefs about nature play a role in their evaluation of the products of biotechnology.5 They embody values and prescriptions about what is morally right or wrong to do to the natural world. The argument is as follows: ‘Nature and all that is natural is valuable and good in itself; all forms of biotechnology are unnatural in that they go against and interfere with nature, particularly in the crossing of natural species boundaries'
KEY ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
There are many ethical traditions or principles proposed by philosophers.
Spier, proposed that ethical traditions can be classified into two broad divisions: secular and spiritual. The secular (western) division is composed of the many ethical or moral philosophy theories or traditions available while spiritual refers to religion6.
Nicholas, suggested two strand of thinking around ethics and life sciences: bioethics and environmental ethics. Each strand of thinking highlights and frame issues in related but different ways. Majority of philosophers believe that there is no single principle or tradition that should determine our conduct or the making of policies.7
Some of the principles which are relevant to GMOs are described below: Rights Theory, Theories of Justice, Consequentialism and Utilitarianism.
ADDRESSING ETHICAL ISSUES OF MODERN BIOTECHNOLOGY
Ethically justifiable conclusions depend on two kinds of judgments: factual (based on scientific evidence and theories), and ethical (based on the best available moral philosophy theories).8 Decisions on what is right to do will be made after balancing the benefits of a technology like genetic engineering with its potential harms. However, ethical decisions concerning genetic modification have proved to be very challenging because it brings together so many ethical aspects of our life that include personal, medical, environmental, political, business, animal and scientific ethics besides religion. A method for addressing ethical issues related to modern biotechnology as recommended with several modifications is suitable for use. He suggested working methodically through a series of questions:
WHAT ETHICAL PRINCIPLES SHOULD GUIDE US?
Since ethical theorists are divided about which theories are best, and each principle has its strengths and weaknesses, I agree with the suggestion9 to use at least the three most common principles relevant to modern biotechnology, one by one. Should all three principles converge on the same conclusion, then there is good reason to think that the conclusion is morally justifiable. However, I strongly recommended the use of additional theories/ principles such as environmental ethics as highlighted by Thomas.10
The prohibitory status of modern biotechnology applications should be studied case by case and in line with Islamic principles. In Islam, the sources of rules are first and foremost is the alQur'an, followed by the Sunnah or hadith (traditions of the Prophet Muhammad).11 In facing a problem that is not answered straightforwardly by earlier two sources, ijma' (consensus) has to be sought collectively from the views of mujtahid (Muslim jurists who are competent enough to deduce precise inferences regarding the commandment from the al-Qur'an and Sunnah).
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1 Propst. 1996. Biotechnology: concepts and techniques.http://www.biotech.nwu.edu/nsf/propst.html. [27 March 2001].
2 Macer, D.R.J. 2000. Bioethics: perceptions of biotechnology and policy implications . International Journal of Biotechnology 3: 116-133.
3 FAO. 2001. Genetically modified organisms, consumers, food safety and the environment. FAO Ethic Series, No. 2. FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/X960E/X9602E00.htm. [29 July 2002].
4 Comstock, G. 2000. Ethics and genetically modified crops. A Brief for the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification of New Zealand, 8 October 2000. Hamid K.Ahmed. 2000. Islamic views on GE.http://member.tripod.com/~ngin/211.htm. [2 June 2002].
5 BABAS. 1999. Ethical aspects of Agricultural Biotechnology. Report of the EFB Task Group on Public Perceptions of Biotechnology. Cambridge Biomedical Consultants, The Hague.
6 Spier, R. 2000. Ethical system. EU Advanced workshop in Biotechnology ethics and public perceptions of biotechnology. St. Edmund Hall, Oxford. June: 17-26.
7 Nicholas, B. 2000. The ethical issues of genetic modification. Background paper for the report of the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification, New Zealand .www.gmcommission. govt. n z /publications/ Ethics_Barbara_Nicholas.pdf. [4 June 2002].
8 Comstock, G. 2000. Ethics and genetically modified crops. A Brief for the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification of New Zealand, 8 October 2000. Thomas, S. 2001. Ethical and social considerations in commercial uses of food and fiber crops. Proceeding of the first International Symposium on Ecological and Societal Aspects of Transgenic Plantations. Strauss, S.H. & Bradshaw, H. D. (eds).College of Forestry, Oregon State University: 92-98.
9 Comstock, G. 2000. Ethics and genetically modified crops. A Brief for the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification of New Zealand, 8 October 2000.
10 Thomas, S. 2001. Ethical and social considerations in commercial uses of food and fiber crops. Proceeding of the first International Symposium on Ecological and Societal Aspects of Transgenic Plantations. Strauss, S.H. & Bradshaw, H. D. (eds).College of Forestry, Oregon State University: 92-98.
11 Hamid K.Ahmed. 2000. Islamic views on GE.http://member.tripod.com/~ngin/211.htm. [2 June 2002].
- Citar trabajo
- Yusuf Popoola (Autor), 2022, Modern Biotechnology. Ethical Issues, Ethical Principles and Guidelines, Múnich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1184378
