Language is an omnipresent medium for humans to establish contact with other people, to exchange with them, to present something and to be able to process information at all. While in conversations between friends there is usually an equal relationship, this is not the case in educational institutions such as schools. Here, the teacher is the guiding person who shapes the lessons, especially with the help of his or her language, and guides the pupils with the aim of triggering learning processes. The content aspects - the subject matter to be taught - but also the formal aspects - such as the style of language - are important. In addition, there are inevitably vocal variables, e.g. the pace of speech, as well as non-linguistic elements, e.g. gestures.
I became aware of the high relevance of the totality of these language-related aspects especially during my studies of mediation sciences. On the one hand, one finds oneself in the situation of the "student" who observes the lecturer and realises how soporific an overstraining linguistic style combined with a monotonous voice leading and little physical action on the part of the lecturer can be. On the other hand, one is oneself, for example, in the context of presentations or in a school internship, the person who is the centre of attention with one's linguistic competences and who has to use them consciously to generate interest in the listeners. However, few people are aware that this can be a particular challenge for students, newcomers to the profession as well as for experienced speakers.
Due to the experience already gained in the context of teacher training and the rather low relevance of the topic of teacher language within university seminars, I have therefore decided to examine teacher language and its importance in the classroom more closely. Neither the teaching of a subject, the teaching methods nor leadership styles are taken into account. The focus is on the manner and formal aspects of teacher language. In particular, the question arises as to what elements make up teacher language and what effects positive or negative teacher language can have on students in classroom communication.
Table of contents
1. Introduction
2. Basics
2.1 Communication in general
2.2 Teaching communication
2.3 Definition of teacher language
2.4 Functions of the teacher's language
2.5 Factors influencing communication situations
2.5.1 Teacher and student personality
2.5.2 Interior design
2.5.3 Effects of time of day, daily routine and weather
3. Levels of teacher language - elements and their impact on students in the classroom
3.1 Verbal level
3.1.1 Language style
3.1.2 Stereotypical statements
3.1.3 The teacher's echo
3.1.4 The questioning technique
3.1.5 Silence
3.2 Paraverbal level
3.2.1 Voice
3.2.2 Pitch or vocal range
3.2.3 Vocal sound
3.2.4 Volume
3.2.5 Speech pace
3.2.6 Intonation
3.3 Non-verbal level
3.3.1 Facial expressions
3.3.2 Gestures
3.3.3 Gaze behaviour
3.3.4 Posture
4. Presentation of the results of the observation of lessons in relation to the connection between teacher language and pupils' attention
4.1 Field and unit of observation
4.2 Content of the observation sheet
4.3 Presentation and critical consideration of the observation results
5. Final consideration
Bibliography
Appendix
Observation sheet
Graphical representation of the observation results
1. Introduction
Language is an omnipresent medium for humans to establish contact with other people, to exchange with them, to present something and to be able to process information at all. While in conversations between friends there is usually an equal relationship, this is not the case in educational institutions such as schools. Here, the teacher is the guiding person who shapes the lessons, especially with the help of his or her language, and guides the pupils with the aim of triggering learning processes. The content aspects - the subject matter to be taught - but also the formal aspects - such as the style of language - are important. In addition, there are inevitably vocal variables, e.g. the pace of speech, as well as non-linguistic elements, e.g. gestures. I became aware of the high relevance of the totality of these language-related aspects especially during my studies of mediation sciences. On the one hand, one finds oneself in the situation of the "student" who observes the lecturer and realises how soporific an overstraining linguistic style combined with a monotonous voice leading and little physical action on the part of the lecturer can be. On the other hand, one is oneself, for example, in the context of presentations or in a school internship, the person who is the centre of attention with one's linguistic competences and who has to use them consciously to generate interest in the listeners. However, few people are aware that this can be a particular challenge for students, newcomers to the profession as well as for experienced speakers. Due to the experience already gained in the context of teacher training and the rather low relevance of the topic of teacher language within university seminars, I have therefore decided to examine teacher language and its importance in the classroom more closely. Neither the teaching of a subject, the teaching methods nor leadership styles are taken into account. The focus is on the manner and formal aspects of teacher language. In particular, the question arises as to what elements make up teacher language and what effects positive or negative teacher language can have on students in classroom communication. To this end, basic aspects of communication and teacher language will first be clarified and, based on this, the three levels of teacher language will be presented separately. Furthermore, it will be examined how the individual elements of teacher language can be interpreted and what effects they have on the pupils in the classroom. Finally, an attempt will be made to find out, on the basis of own observations of three lessons, whether in practice a connection can be perceived between positive or negative teacher language and the attention of the pupils.
2. Basics
The explanations given in this chapter are intended to provide an initial understanding of the terms and to highlight the relevance of the language to the teaching profession.
2.1 Communication in general
Communication is the exchange of information or understanding between two or more persons, the sender and the receiver. In this process, a communication process is never one-sided, with mutual understanding forming the basis for it. Accordingly, the message transmitted must have a minimum of common signs. These consist of the linguistic - verbal and paraverbal - as well as the non-linguistic - non-verbal - means of expression.1 In addition, according to Schulz von Thun (1993:12 ff.), every speech act contains four different aspects: the factual content, the relational side, the appeal and the self-revelation. The factual content contains only the factual utterance, which is influenced by the relational side, e.g. through tone of voice, facial expression and manner of speaking, in such a way that the receiver can infer how the sender feels about him. In addition, the appeal side is the request of the sender to the receiver to do something. The fourth component is self-revelation, which gives indications of the sender's self-presentation in the communication situation.2
2.2 Teaching communication
In the classroom, communication is used for interaction, i.e. for mutual influence between teacher and students.3 This means that there is always a transfer of information and mutual influence, with the teacher assuming the dominant position. Their communication behaviour aims in particular to stimulate thinking and learning processes. However, due to individual personalities, attitudes and perceptions on the part of the students, the communicative behaviour of the teacher is always received and interpreted differently, which makes the course of the lesson uncertain and student reactions uncertain. Therefore, it is of particular importance for a teacher to be aware of her verbal, paraverbal and non-verbal signals and to be able to use them flexibly in order to realise her teaching goals and achieve learning success.4
2.3 Definition of teacher language
First of all, teacher language consists of the teacher's use of language and language behaviour. Furthermore, Westdörp (2010:2) attributes to it "all elements of communicative behaviour (verbal, non-verbal, paraverbal and others)".5 The verbal elements include both written language and any spoken utterances such as explaining and questioning, as well as formal aspects such as the style of speech. These utterances are shaped by paraverbal elements such as the pitch of the voice or the pace of speech. They are accompanied by non-verbal elements such as gestures, facial expressions, etc. Other communicative means, which Rosenbusch & Schober (2004:5 f.), for example, assign to the non-verbal level, include the teacher's appearance, writing, symbols, etc. These other parameters are not considered in this work. However, these other parameters will not be considered further in the context of this work. More detailed explanations of the verbal, paraverbal and non-verbal levels and their effects on the pupils follow in sections 3.1 to 3.3.
2.4 Functions of the teacher's language
Fields of work such as the teaching profession are characterised by a high degree of communication and require adaptable communicative skills from the speaker. One of the most important tasks is speaking to and with each other. This task is largely realised in dealing with specific teaching subjects, which are developed with the help of different teaching aids. In addition to textbooks, worksheets, films, etc., the teacher's language is the most important means of conveying teaching content to the pupils. It can be used to define and describe existing objects that are not present or can be represented in a different way, so that the pupils can develop an idea of them. Successful representation depends in particular on precise, lively and illustrative language. Furthermore, it is itself a subject of teaching, e.g. in (foreign) language teaching, and can be considered on the meta-level. In this context, the teacher's highlighting of the factual and relational aspects plays an important role in pointing out problems and disturbances in the exchange of information and in supporting the pupils in both factual and interpersonal communication.6 At the same time, both aspects are also expressed in the teacher's language itself and are interdependent. While factual content is being communicated, the teacher's personal attitude towards his students and the subject matter is reflected in his communicative behaviour. According to Glöckel (2003:18), this can lead to mutual encouragement or inhibition or to success or failure in the classroom. Therefore, Neumann (2003:80) pleads in this context for a sensitive handling of language in classroom communication. In addition, the teacher serves as a role model and is himself a medium of learning. By perceiving and processing the teacher's linguistic utterances, pupils' learning processes and linguistic competences are influenced. Accordingly, not only should the teacher's own communicative goals be pursued, but the oral communicative competences of the pupils should be consciously promoted, which is also a general educational goal.7 However, the teacher also serves as a model with regard to the pupils' motivation to learn. The teacher's attitude towards the lesson and his subject, which, for example, shows commitment, inventiveness, unwillingness, etc., can have an effect on the pupils' motivation to learn.8 The teacher's language also serves to regulate behaviour in the class community by using language forms such as instructions, requests or admonitions.9 It is therefore also an expression of the teacher's leadership style. Finally, the education of pupils results from the preceding functions and forms of language. For example, by promoting linguistic competences and manners, by serving as a language model and by encouraging reflection on interpersonal exchanges, the teacher influences the students' values. The forms of language already mentioned, which can be supplemented by praise, recognition, encouragement, advice and rebuke, also have an educational effect on the pupils.10
2.5 Factors influencing communication situations
In addition to the different functions of teacher language, there are various factors that influence classroom communication. According to this, the teacher's language is not solely responsible for the success of the teaching process and also the learning success.
2.5.1 Teacher and student personality
Due to individual dispositions, attitudes and experiences, everyone – teachers and students alike – behave differently in classroom communication. When interacting with students, the teacher in particular needs to be able to adapt to the individual knowledge and needs of his or her students, to show empathy, to value them and to treat them fairly.11 However, not all students are equally addressed by the teacher's aspirations and enthusiasm due to different mental and physical abilities, inclinations and inner moods of each student. Age and social or ethnic background also shape the student's personality and thus their attitude to teaching. Consequently, the teacher is confronted daily with individual interest groups, the number and composition of which can influence teaching.12 As a result, there is a strong interaction between the teacher and his or her students, with the teacher's personality and leadership style having a particularly strong influence on the teacher-student relationship.13 These factors in turn result in the class climate, which should be characterised by friendliness, mutual respect and cooperation, but also by fairness, care and adherence to rules in the class community. Here, too, the teacher is given a prominent role.14
2.5.2 Interior design
A friendly classroom with soothing colours and the pupils' own designs enhances the "feel-good" atmosphere and a sense of security, promotes learning and leads to a better identification with the school. In addition, there should be opportunities for the pupils to develop, i.e. places for free work, for storing materials and for their own teaching aids, in order to facilitate learning.15
2.5.3 Effects of time of day, daily routine and weather
Lastly, the effects of time of day, daily routine and weather in the classroom should be considered. These aspects can create different moods and states in the students.16 In relation to the time of day, tiredness and listlessness can occur, for example, in the first lessons due to getting up early. Low spirits and aggression can come into play, for example, due to a poorly graded control paper or arguments with classmates in the daily routine. On the other hand, holidays that are just around the corner can cause exuberance in the class community.
3. Levels of teacher language - elements and their impact on students in the classroom
In chapter three, selected elements of the verbal, paraverbal and non-verbal levels of teacher language are presented and their effects on the students are explained. Special attention is given to the elements of the first two levels, which were also part of the observation mentioned in the introduction. Due to the considerable scope of the non-verbal domain, some of the associated elements can only be outlined in the context of this paper.
3.1 Verbal level
The verbal level of the teacher's language includes all linguistic utterances, both oral and written, although the latter will not be discussed in more detail in the further course. As already indicated in section 2.4, information is conveyed at two different levels. On the one hand, the denotation is expressed, i.e. the fixed word meaning or the factual content. On the other hand, a verbal utterance is always afflicted with a connotation, i.e. with a secondary meaning, attitude, idea or evaluation. These can be identical in interpersonal communication, but can also differ from each other, so that misunderstandings arise, for example.17 Consequently, this aspect must be taken into account in teaching communication, as the experience and knowledge background of teachers and students is always different. The verbal level is characterised by diverse elements. These include the forms of conversation, questioning and impulse techniques, the style of speech, stereotypical idioms, the teacher's echo, reflective speech and also silence. Due to the considerable scope, this section explains those elements that could also be taken into account during the observation. These include the speaking style, the stereotypical utterances, the teacher echo, the questioning technique as well as the silence.
3.1.1 Language style
In literature, linguistic style includes both verbal and paraverbal elements.18 For the sake of clarity, they are nevertheless considered separately. With regard to the comprehensibility of the teacher's language, the sentence structure, for example, plays a central role. Short, fully formulated sentences greatly reduce the risk of slips of the tongue and the students can follow the teacher well. When creating complicated, long sentences, on the other hand, the teacher runs the risk of not only overtaxing him/herself by finishing sentences incorrectly in terms of grammar or content, but also the students. The latter can easily become overloaded as a result of rambling sentence structures and turn away mentally. The result would be reduced attention.19 A varied vocabulary together with the ability of lively articulation has a motivating and attention-grabbing effect. Heidemann (2009:153) refers to the use of illustrative examples and rhetorical devices to facilitate learning and internalisation. Dubs (2009:146) also mentions the goal of constantly increasing the teacher's vocabulary in terms of synonyms and technical terms in order to expand the students' vocabulary. In doing so, too much redundancy, i.e. the superfluous repetition of already known information, should be avoided, as it often confuses pupils. Unclear, ambiguous or even relativising statements not only give the impression of inadequate lesson preparation on the part of the teacher, but also have a negative effect on the learning performance of the students. Studies in the 1960s and 1970s have shown this. Frequently used, expressions such as "in a way", "somehow", "um", "just" or "right"20 have an amusing effect on the students and therefore distract them from the actual subject matter.21 Furthermore, the sociolect is of particular importance. Due to the role of the teacher and the expectations placed on him regarding his professionalisation, the use of so-called youth jargon as well as other sociolects is not permitted. Any verbal actions that deviate from the standard language lead to rejection on the part of the pupils. The distance thus created between teacher and pupils impedes learning and destroys the teacher's role as a role model.22
3.1.2 Stereotypical statements
According to Heidemann (2009:140 ff.), stereotypical expressions also have a negative effect. He understands this to mean ritualised, stylistic bad habits or mispronunciations on the part of the teacher, such as "Today we want to deal with ...", "I'm still missing something here", "Now, please, ladies and gentlemen" 23 or "Today one talks about ...".24 While Bittner (2006:90) is of the opinion that the teacher is expressing disinterest towards the pupils, Heidemann (2009:140 ff.) attributes differentiated meanings to the stereotypical statements: By using the personal pronoun "we", the teacher hides obvious appeals and orders. In this way, he indirectly evades the responsibility of specifically instructing the pupils. The peaceful interaction between teacher and pupils in class is thus merely faked and often does not correspond to the actual relationship between them. Students perceive such linguistic behaviour as dishonest and impolite. Furthermore, the stereotypical, impersonal utterances lead to a build-up of distance between teacher and pupil. The pupils feel "degraded to passive learning objects" 25 . The teacher is perceived as closed and inauthentic, which makes it difficult to build up a pleasant conversational atmosphere and relationship.26
3.1.3 The teacher's echo
Another element of verbal communication that has rather negative connotations is teacher echo. This means that the teacher reproduces student statements with the same wording. The reason for the verbatim reproduction is, for example, to counteract possible long pauses in the collection of ideas during lessons and thus to bridge them verbally. The pupils are thus given the feeling that their comments have been recorded. However, if they do not receive any feedback in the further course of the lesson, they are not only unsettled, but may refrain from cooperating in the future.27 Thus, teacher feedback, together with a lack of feedback, has a negative effect on student behaviour. Furthermore, the teacher's echo can be an indication that the teacher has not grasped the content of a statement. With repetition, the teacher consciously or unconsciously buys time to think about other aspects, while the student's statement is not thought through at all. This can also have a disruptive effect on the students' behaviour in class, as they feel that they are not being taken seriously.28 Bittner's (2006:101) example shows the drastic effects that the teacher's echo can have in a question-developed classroom discussion. If a high-performing pupil is often called upon to answer a teacher's question and the teacher responds with an echo, lower-performing pupils break off their thinking process prematurely. If these processes occur more frequently, where a question cannot be thought through because the teacher's echo is already seen as confirmation of a correct answer, lower-performing pupils subsequently lose their interest in learning and permanently withdraw from the classroom.29 Therefore, a teacher should use echo wisely and, if possible, make sure that all pupils are involved.
3.1.4 The questioning technique
The spectrum of the questioning technique is very complex. As a specific form of teaching, it is used very frequently in the classroom. According to studies, a lesson contains an average of 50 to 150 questions, 80% of which were classified as fact or memory questions and only 20% as thinking questions. In general, the questioning technique serves to convey and order knowledge, and to activate cognitive processes as well as independent action. In addition, the teacher question has a guidance, examination, repetition and control function and is particularly used to attract attention and interest.30 These aspects can be realised by means of different forms of questions, for which there are various classification systems. Meyer (2005:207 f.) differentiates them as follows: "content-, process- and relationship-related questions ..., knowledge and thinking questions ..., open and closed questions ..., convergent and divergent questions ..., shotgun questions ... and balloon questions ...".31 There are specific requirements for asking these appropriate questions: they should be based on prior experience or learning or be presented together with information. In addition, unambiguity and clarity play an important role in question wording, so that learners know what to look for when answering. In this context, the complexity of the questions should also be taken into account in order not to overburden the students and possibly get sprawling answers that are again not comprehensible for the classmates.32 The stringing together of multiple questions, the so-called chain questions, should also be avoided - they overwhelm and confuse the students and do not allow for problem solving. Suggestive questions have another negative effect - they already anticipate the answer, therefore seem banal and do not lead to any learning gain, as independent thinking is not stimulated.33 In addition, it is important to use natural language when formulating questions, i.e. questions should not be asked artificially or in youth language in order to reach the students and to promote their ability to think. Question wording adapted to the students' level is important for the course of the lesson: terms familiar to the students should be used to ensure that each learner has understood the question. Only then can new terminology be introduced. In this way, the students' vocabulary improves and the teacher gradually raises the level of difficulty of the questions. Another requirement is to design questions with the familiar question words: This gives the possibility of better question wording and easier perception by the students. Finally, the teacher must be aware of the question forms in order not only to repeat what has already been learned, but also to stimulate learning and reflection processes. In order to achieve this, more open and divergent questions should be asked, as they give the students a lot of scope for independent reflection.34 This complexity of appropriate and correct use of question forms should be mastered and consciously used by every teacher in order to motivate and stimulate students and to achieve learning success. Therefore, it is indispensable to reflect on one's own questioning behaviour and to work on possible undesirable developments.
...
1 cf. Gimmler/ Gleich/ Six (2007), p. 21; Glöckel (2003), p. 17 f.
2 cf. Schulz von Thun (1993), S. 12 ff.
3 cf. Glöckel (2003), p. 17 f.
4 cf. Schmitt/ Weiß (2004), p. 168.
5 Westdörp (2010), p. 2.
6 cf. Glöckel (2003), p. 52 ff.
7 cf. ibid., p. 52 et seq.; Miosga (2006), p. 44; Spanhel (1971), p. 82 ff.
8 cf. Helmke (2009), p. 219.
9 cf. Spanhel (1971), p. 75 ff.
10 cf. Glöckel (2003), p. 55.; Spanhel (1971), p. 76.
11 cf. Köck (2005), p. 81 ff.
12 cf. Glöckel (2003), p. 168 ff.
13 cf. Köck (2005), p. 81.
14 cf. Helmke (2009), p. 220 f.
15 cf. Köck (2005), p. 145.
16 cf. Glöckel (2003), p. 173 f.
17 cf. Glöckel (2003), p. 52.
18 cf. Dubs (2009), p. 146 ff.; Heidemann (2009), p. 152 ff.
19 cf. Bittner (2006), p. 89.; Dubs (2009), p. 146; Heidemann (2009), p. 152 ff.
20 Helmke (2009), p. 193.
21 cf. ibid., p. 193.
22 cf. Heidemann (2009), p. 154 f.
23 cf. ibid., p. 140 ff.
24 Bittner (2006), p. 90.
25 Heidemann (2009), p. 142.
26 cf. ibid.
27 cf. ibid., p. 131.
28 cf. ibid., p. 132.
29 cf. Bittner (2006), p. 101.
30 cf. Dubs (2009), p. 122 f.; Heidemann (2009), p. 144.
31 cf. Meyer (2005), p. 207 f.
32 cf. Dubs (2009), p. 125 f.
33 cf. Meyer (2005), p. 208 f.
34 cf. Dubs (2009), p. 126 ff.
-
-
-
-
¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
-
¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
-
¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
-
¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
-
¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
-
¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
-
¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
-
¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X.