A comprehensive work on the topic of classroom disruption, specifically the preventive and reactive strategies discussed in the current literature, presented in the theoretical section and examined in the practical section of the work for their effectiveness and use in the classroom. Classroom management is given significant attention.
Objective of the work: The situation described above raises the question of how theory and practice currently compare with regard to dealing with classroom disruptions. What is the distribution of preventive and reactive measures in practice? Which strategies do teachers actually resort to, and how do they evaluate their effectiveness? This theoretical and empirical study aims to answer these and other related questions and to create a comparison between theory and practice.
Research questions:
I. How many of the strategies discussed in the current literature are teachers aware of?
II. Do teachers increase or decrease their repertoire of measures as they gain professional experience?
III. Which of the strategies known to teachers from the current literature are actually used?
a. What is the distribution of preventive and reactive measures in practice?
b. What are the most common strategies?
IV. How do teachers rate the effectiveness of the strategies used?
a. What do teachers think of preventive measures?
b. What are the reasons for possibly low use of preventive measures in school?
V. How did they come up with these strategies?
VI. What is the proportion of unconsciously used versus consciously used strategies?
Objectives:
- To elaborate on the preventive and reactive measures discussed in the literature.
- Highlight the importance of preventive measures versus reactive ones
- To determine whether the measures brought forth in the more current literature have been adopted in practice
- Identify which strategies are known and which are being used.
- Identify which strategies are most commonly used in the school setting.
- Determine the extent to which classroom disruptions are managed unconsciously.
- To determine the teachers' points of view regarding the different measures, especially the preventive ones.
- Comparison of theory and practice
Table of contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Objective of this paper
1.2 Structure of the paper
2 Definitions and disambiguations
2.1 Disturbances in Class
2.1.1 Definition according to Karlheinz Biller (1979)
2.1.2 Definition according to Rainer Winkel
2.1.3 Definition according to Gert Lohmann
2.2 Classroom Management
3 State of research
3.1 Prevention and intervention of disturbances in class
3.1.1 First studies on classroom management
3.1.2 Jacob Kounin's findings
3.1.3 Evertson et. al’s findings
3.1.4 Management style (exchange/ exchange)
3.1.5 Haertel, Wang and Walberg
3.1.6 Helmke (scholastic study)
3.2 Comparison between theory and practice
3.2.1 Successful strategies and types - Mayr et al.
3.2.2 LCH survey on discipline difficulties in Schools in German-speaking Switzerland
3.2.3 Nolting's survey
3.3 Critical reflection on the state of research
3.4 Current literature on the subject
4 Strategies in dealing with disturbances in class
4.1 Preventive strategies
4.1.1 Discipline management level and organization obtaining information about the class and students in advance
4.1.2 Prevention at teaching level
4.1.3 Prevention at the relationship level
4.2 Reactive strategies
4.2.1 Intervention strategies at the relationship level
4.2.2 Intervention at the discipline management level Early intervention
4.2.3 Intervention strategy at teaching level
4.2.4 Importance of preventive strategies
5 Summary of the theoretical part
6 The study – questions and hypotheses
7 Methodology
7.1 Research design
7.2 Preparation of the questionnaire
7.3 Structure of the questionnaire
7.4 Presentation of the school (sample)
7.5 Implementation
7.6 Data analysis
8 Evaluation and results
8.1 Sample
8.2 Knowledge of strategies
8.2.1 Knowledge of strategies
8.3 Use of strategies
8.3.1 Use of the presented strategies
8.3.3 Strategies indicated by teachers
8.3.4 Estimated use at the school
8.4 Effectiveness of strategies
8.4.1 Effectiveness of the strategies presented
8.5 Reasons for the rare use of preventive strategies
8.6 Appropriation of strategies
8.7 Conscious or unconscious use
9 Discussion
9.1 Summary and discussion of the findings
9.2 Criticism of methods
9.3 Outlook
10 Summary
11 Bibliography
List of figures
List of Tables
Annex
1 Introduction
Disturbances in class form an integral part of the everyday life of every teacher. The causes of such disturbances are very different, they manifest themselves in extremely different ways and teaching without them is simply not realistic. The strategies and procedures of teachers in dealing with teaching disorders are equally diverse. In the specialist literature, a lot has happened in this field in recent years, which has aroused my interest.
Through my work as a substitute teacher in a grammar school, I was personally confronted with the problem of disturbances in class. At the same time, I had to realize that my university education had hardly been able to give me any assistance for dealing with this topic. Although this problem has been criticized since the beginning of school history (cf. Keller 2005, p. 27), in this case, too, the infamous reality shock followed. As a result, I set out to find ways and strategies to deal with this problem. In the educational literature, I have been surprised by the number of phenomena, especially from recent times. An increasing predominance of prevention over traditional measures such as admonition and punishment, could be observed. In view of the notoriously psychologically stressful teaching profession with the tendency to the so-called burn-out syndrome, the analogy to medicine and to Antonovsky's concept of salutogenesis does not seem far-fetched in this context. He asked the almost revolutionary question of what keeps people healthy, instead of focusing, as usual, only on the development of illness and the associated healing. The use of preventive measures in the classroom to prevent disturbances therefore seems equally plausible. But can these theoretical findings found in practice, specifically in the classrooms? HansPeter Nolting stated in 2003:
"Das Ausmaß von Unterrichtsstörungen hängt entscheidend vom Lehrerverhalten ab. Nicht so wichtig ist dabei die Art des Umgangs mit eingetretenen Störungen, sondern eine Klassenführung, die Störungen präventiv entgegenwirkt. Wie diese aussieht, ist zwar in der Forschung seit langem bekannt, kaum hingegen, so zeigt eine Umfrage, in der Lehrerschaft." (Nolting 2003, p. 53).
However, the opposite direction of movement, from practice to theory, seems to be deficient and to present a research gap. For example, the educationist Jürg Rüedi laments the lack of investigations that show, what is actually being done in the classrooms in connection with "Disziplin und Strafe" and how these procedures have proven themselves from the teacher's point of view (cf. Rüedi 2007, p. 170).
1.1 Objective of this paper
The situation described raises the question of how this comparison between theory and practice is currently structured. What is the distribution of preventive and reactive measures in practice? Which strategies do teachers actually use and how do they assess their effectiveness? This theoretical and empirical study aims to answer these and other related questions and to create a comparison between theory and practice. For this purpose, a cross-sectional study was carried out in the form of an exemplary survey of a grammar school college. The relevant questions and associated goals are presented here briefly.
Questions:
I. How many of the strategies discussed in the current literature are known to teachers?
II. Do teachers expand or reduce their repertoire of measures with increasing professional experience?
III. Which of the strategies known to the teachers from the current literature are actually applied?
A. In practice, how is the relationship between preventive and reactive measures distributed?
B. What are the most common strategies?
IV. How do teachers assess the effectiveness of the strategies applied?
A. What do teachers think of preventive measures?
B. What are the reasons for a possibly low use of preventive measures in schools?
V. How did they come up with these strategies?
VI. How large is the proportion of unconsciously applied versus consciously applied strategies?
goals:
Development of the preventive and reactive measures discussed in the literature
Emphasising the importance of preventive measures against reactive
Determine whether the measures produced in the more recent literature have arrived in practice
Determine which strategies are known and which are used Identification of the most frequently used strategies in everyday school life
Determining the extent to which coping with teaching disorders happens unconsciously
Recording of the points of view of the teachers regarding the various measures, especially the preventive measures
Comparison of theory and practice
1.2 Structure of the paper
This paper is divided into a theoretical and a practical part. The first part deals with the theory with regard to disturbances in class and their coping strategies. For this purpose, an introduction to the essential terms "disturbances in class" and "class leadership" is first given, the various definitions of which are to be explained. In the following chapter, the state of research on classroom leadership and further findings with regard to coping with disturbances in class is listed, as well as critically reflected. At this point you will also find the findings that are relevant for the cross-sectional investigation carried out in the practical part of the work. The state of research provides the basis for the elaboration of the preventive and reactive strategies in dealing with disturbances in class found in the current literature, which are collected and examined in chapter four. The review and elaboration of the theory constitutes a substantial part of this work and ends with an emphasis on the importance of preventive measures over intervention.
The second practical part involves the actual study. First, the questions to be investigated are listed and hypotheses are generated from them. The following chapter explicitly explains the methodology and research design of the empirical investigation, which were chosen to answer the research questions posed and to test the hypotheses. This passage implies both the presentation of the survey instrument, a specially designed questionnaire, and the presentation of the sample, i.e. the staff at a high school. Finally, the survey is evaluated in chapter eight and its results are collected in a structured manner. These are then interpreted in the discussion using the state of research. The discussion concludes with the methodological critique of the investigation carried out and an outlook. Finally, the entire work is summarized in chapter ten.
For the sake of readability, the male form includes the female form in the following text.
Theoretical part
2 Definitions and disambiguations
2.1 Disturbances in Class
The term "disturbances in class" is not a problem of understanding for anyone today. However, an exact and uniform definition is not found in literature, which reflects the complexity of the topic. There are too many answers to the questions: What is a disturbance in class, when can it be called a disturbance and who decides when and whether it is one.
As a result, the definitions commonly used in the recent literature are presented and the term is delineated from terms in the same context.
If one speaks in the more recent specialist literature of "disturbances in class", previously related terms such as discipline difficulties, behavioral problems and educational difficulties were used. Since they imply a certain apportion of blame, they no longer seem to make sense today. Thus, the term "discipline difficulties" focuses on the teacher, who has to ensure discipline in the class and is held solely responsible for corresponding problems, while the terms "behavioral abnormality" and "educational difficulties" focus on the student and assign him alone the blame for the disturbed teaching.
2.1.1 Definition according to Karlheinz Biller (1979)
Karlheinz Biller detaches himself from these guilty terms and uses the term "disturbances in class", which he defines as follows:
"Alles, was den Prozess oder das Beziehungsgefüge von Unterrichtssituationen unterbricht oder unterbrechen könnte, ist als konkrete oder potentielle Unterrichtsstörung definierbar" (Biller 1979, p. 28).
The term he has chosen is now characterized by neutrality and represents a closer reference to teaching practice. Biller also makes it clear that the teaching-learning process is a complex structure and that the causes of disruptions in teaching depend on different factors. He interprets the disturbance not only by the teaching-learning process and thus by the course of the lesson, but rather sees the existence and the degree of a "disturbance" depending on the assessments of the teachers and students involved. What is also striking about Biller's definition is that, in addition to the actual interruptions, it also includes possible interruptions in class (cf. Biller 1979, p. 26 ff.).
2.1.2 Definition according to Rainer Winkel
Rainer Winkel takes a similar view, distancing himself from using terms such as "discipline" and "behavioral disorders" in pedagogy, which would not come out of the "Teufelskreis von Verurteilen und Entschuldigen". He opposes defining disturbances in class only from the teacher or only from the student's point of view and instead identifies disturbances in class based on the classroom and thus, as Biller did before him, from the teaching learning process:
"Eine Unterrichtsstörung liegt dann vor, wenn der Unterricht gestört ist, d.h. wenn das Lehren und Lernen stockt, aufhört, pervertiert, unerträglich oder inhuman wird" (Winkel 2009, p. 29).
Winkel is also aware of the relativity with regard to the perception of disturbances in class, which are interpreted differently by teachers and students. In contrast to Biller, however, he sees this as a permanent source of conflict, resulting from the different views of the participants. Therefore, he distances himself from a "personal direction of definition". What is meant is the dependence of the disturbance in class on the assessment by teachers and students, which Biller defined as decisive in addition to the teaching-learning process. Only if "der Unterrichtsprozess bedroht ist, abbricht oder in der Perversion endet" is there a disturbance in class. According to Winkel, everything else is "Kennzeichnungen persönlicher Meinung, aber keine Unterrichtsstörungen". For this reason, most disturbances in class represent signals from students who want to communicate something to the teacher (see Winkel 2009, p. 31).
2.1.3 Definition according to Gert Lohmann
" Unterrichtsstörungen sind Ereignisse, die den Lehr-Lern-Prozess beeinträchtigen, unterbrechen oder unmöglich machen, indem sie die Voraussetzungen, unter denen Lehren und Lernen erst stattfinden kann, teilweise oder ganz außer Kraft setzen. Zu den Voraussetzungen zählen äußere und innere das Lernen ermöglichende Bedingungen, wie z.B. physische und psychische Sicherheit, Ruhe, Aufmerksamkeit, Konzentration." (Lohmann 2012, p. 13)
Lohmann also sees disturbances in class as impairments of the teaching-learning process. However, he defines the phenomenon of disturbances in class most comprehensively of all the authors mentioned, since the cause of this is due to teacher and student behavior, as well as to external conditions. It also emphasizes the subjective character with regard to the perception of disturbances in class due to various norms and expectations on the part of students and teachers (Lohmann 2012, p. 13).
The present paper is based on Lohmann's definition. At the same time, it should be emphasized that the teacher also has a considerable amount of responsibility for the emergence of teaching disorders. It is accentuated that the term disturbances in class lacks objectivity.
2.2 Classroom Management
Even if "efficient classroom management" or "classroom management" is not primarily about coping with disturbances in class, classroom management still plays an essential role in the prevention and intervention of disturbances in class. Based on this, classroom management will be defined in the following and the related studies will be presented.
Definition of Classroom Management
For the term "classroom management", which is closely related to disturbances in class, the synonyms Klassenführung and Klassenmanagement are widely used in German-speaking countries. However, the meanings of the terms are very heterogeneous.
In Germany, classroom management is mainly associated to disciplining measures, as a reaction to disturbances through punishments and lecturing and thus it is not adequate enough. However, this traditional, behaviorist approach is no longer considered contemporary.
The internationally most widespread interpretation of classroom management is much broader and includes preventive, proactive and reactive aspects, with a focus on prevention. Although teaching quality and classroom management are conceptually distinguished, attention is drawn to the close reciprocal dependence and interdependence. Efficient classroom management is consistently seen as a key qualification of teaching quality (cf. Helmke 2009, p. 172). For Weinert (1998, p. 27), the competence classroom management includes motivating the pupils to learning concentrated as much as possible, the prevention of disturbances through an appropriate teaching design, and regulating, i.e. to end any disturbances that occur quickly and inconspicuously. Weinert describes "efficient classroom management" as follows:
"Die wichtigste Voraussetzung für wirkungsvolles und erfolgreiches Lernen ist das Ausmaß der aktiven Lernzeit, das heißt der Zeit, in der sich die einzelnen Schüler mit den zu lernenden Inhalten aktiv, engagiert und konstruktiv auseinandersetzen. Je mehr Unterrichtszeit für die Reduktion störender Aktivität verbraucht bzw. verschwendet wird, desto weniger aktive Lernzeit steht zur Verfügung. Je häufiger einzelne Schüler im Unterricht anwesend und zugleich geistig abwesend sind, umso weniger können sie lernen. Der Klassenführung kommt deshalb eine Schlüsselkompetenz im Unterricht zu" (Weinert 1996, p. 124).
Here, the importance of classroom management in terms of learning in the classroom and especially in terms of disturbances during this process becomes apparent.
However, while in the German-speaking world, as in Weinert's case, classroom management is more strongly associated with the clear regulation of teaching and, above all, with an effective use of time, the term classroom management is used in the Anglo-American area in the broader sense used. Evertson's approach not only emphasizes the action that pre-empts the actual teaching, for example by making agreements, introducing rules at the beginning of school or obtaining information about students before taking over the class. It also includes emotional and social learning. Thus, Evertson and Weinstein define classroom management as "... the actions teachers take to create an environment that supports and facilitates both academic an social-emotional learning... IIt not only seeks to establish and sustain an orderly environment so students can engage in meaningful academic learning, it also aims to enhance students´ social and moral growth" ( Evertson/Weinstein 2006, p. 14).
The heterogeneity of the term becomes clear. For this paper, classroom management is to be used as a whole of all measures to ensure an orderly and learning-effective teaching process.
3 State of research
3.1 Prevention and intervention of disturbances in class
(State of research of the theoretical part of the paper)
As a result, the state of research relevant for the prevention and intervention of disturbances in class will now be outlined, which primarily includes studies on classroom management and management style. The strategies mentioned in the next chapter are largely based on these studies, which is why they are considered here.
3.1.1 First studies on classroom management
After Evertson and Weinstein, William Chandler Bagley (1907) was one of the first to do research on classroom management. Holding on to the belief that school should prepare children for the civilized life, he advocated the use of "management principles" in school for this purpose. Based on the observations of teachers, which he considered successful and efficient, as well as his own experiences and general psychological principles, he established management principles that were helpful for shaping and training student behavior (Everston/ Weinstein 2006, p. 19).
3.1.2 Jacob Kounin's findings
Classroom management and the associated preventive strategies, in addition to intervention, became more and more the focus of research due to Jacob Kounin's investigations in the 70s. Due to the high importance of his studies, these will be presented in more detail at this point.
The origin of his investigations can be traced back to an incident. In a lecture he gave, he angrily scolded a student who openly read a widely open newspaper during his lecture. The scolding was successful. The student quit reading the newspaper. More remarkable for Kounin, however, was the observable effect on the other students. They were also affected by the measure, although it was not directed against them. He subsequently tried to investigate this "domino effect" in more detail at various schools and investigated the question of which rebuke had the best possible effect in response to a disturbance (cf. Kounin 2006, p. 17 ff.).
Despite numerous investigations using various research methods, he and his colleagues only came to contradictory findings without clear results. No correlation could be established between the teachers' reprimand behaviour and the cooperation or the disturbing behaviour of the pupils. What was successful with teacher A proved ineffective with teacher B. Scolding that provided peace in one class fail in the other classes. The nature of the reaction to a disturbance therefore proved to be of little importance. Only when the researchers use video analysis of different classes to focus on the events before the disturbance, instead of just on the teacher's action afterwards, they came to useful results. Accordingly, the desired effect is less dependent on the rebuke than on other dimensions of teacher behavior, which deminably correlated with the desired student behavior. On the basis of this, Kounin establishes four dimensions, which are described in more detail in the following and are based on Nolting's conceptually simplified classification (cf. Kounin 2006, p. 84).
Originally, he describes the first dimension as "withitness and overlapping", which is translated as "Allgegenwärtigkeit und Überlappung" (cf. Kounin 2006, p. 85). This refers to the teacher's ability to give the students the feeling that they see everything that happens in the classroom and that they do not fail to notice everything. With regard to disturbances, not making "time and object errors", proved to be particularly relevant. Time errors arise in the case of a delayed reaction of the teacher to an onset or already existing disturbance, which subsequently spreads and passes over to other students. If the wrong student is punished, who is merely a spectator or "co-infected" of the actual source of interference, Kounin speaks of an "Objektfehler" (Kounin 2006, p. 90 ff.). Omnipresence also includes "Überlappung". This refers to the teacher's ability to take care of two things simultaneously, for example, to explain a task to a group and to scold a disturbing student almost at the same time.
The second dimension of "Reibungslosigkeit und Schwung" refers above all to smooth transitions of individual activities within the teaching process. Unnecessary delays, abrupt transitions and thematic leaps hinder the flow of lessons and should therefore be avoided as much as possible. This also includes long "preaching" by the teachers in reaction to banal occurrences, abrupt changes of tasks or distractions due to inconsequential stimuli (Where is Susi today?). Kounin emphasizes that successful classroom management by a teacher is hardly noticed by an outside observer and appears to be easy, while poorly run classes provide an opportunity to recognize mistakes. Thus, the consideration of the dimension of "Reibungslosigkeit und Schwung" is hardly recognizable to the outside world, but fulfils its purpose (cf. Kounin 2006, p. 101 ff.).
As a third point, Kounin cites the "Aufrechterhaltung des GruppenFokus". This ensures that not only individuals feel lead to cooperate, but all students are activated at the same time, even if it is not their turn. Two aspects in particular prove to be decisive: "Gruppenmobilisierung" and the "Rechenschaftsprinzip". The former describes the extent to which the teacher manages to maintain the attention of the uneneonored students. This is achieved, for example, when the student has to expect to be called out. It is also possible to generate tension before calling the students by a rambling look into the class or an announcement such as: "Jetzt lasst uns doch mal sehen, wer…." (Kounin 2006, p. 124). The second aspect is the 'Rechenschaftsprinzip'. It describes the extent to which students must be accountable for their performance and are controlled. If, for example, the teacher asks the students to hold up the task books or asks the class for reports in order to call up several, several students are activated at the same time and the principle is fulfilled (cf. Kounin 2006, p. 117 ff.).
Kounin describes the last dimension as "programmierte Überdrussvermeidung". After that, it is important to avoid the weariness on the part of the students through "negative motivation" in the form of frequent repetitions. Instead, through a variation in terms of methods, content and cognitive challenges, students are to be stimulated in order to reduce the probability of the occurrence of disorders (Kounin 2006, p. 131 ff.).
Now Kounin's findings date back more than forty years. His investigations only focused on the behavior of the teacher and a teacher-centered teaching, which no longer corresponds to today's teaching quality. Nevertheless, they represent milestones in the research of classroom management and are still of great importance at the moment. His results shift attention away from controlling and sanctioning the behavior of individual students to effectively teaching the entire class, which takes precedence over the individual. In addition, they provided the impetus for further research, which largely confirmed Kounin's findings and were able to expand them with new findings.
3.1.3 Evertson et. al’s findings
Kounin's findings were largely replicated in subsequent research (cf. Brophy 2006, p. 28 ff.). Numerous studies were conducted mainly by Emmer, Evertson and Sanford at the beginning of the 80s at primary and secondary schools. Evertson and Harris (1992) summarized the findings within process-product research. As a result, teachers with effective classroom management demonstrated the following behaviors:
1. Mostly effective time management
2. Implementation of group strategies with a high degree of involvement and low level of disruption
3. Choice of tasks that leads to a high level of engagement of the students
4. Communicating clear rules on participation
5. Implementation of a control system at the beginning of the year (Evertson/ Harris 1992, p. 76)
The dimensions of Kounin were supplemented by the production of stable order structures, especially by the introduction of rules. These represent an important part of effective classroom management, the importance of which is empirically well documented (cf. Nolting 2011, p. 39).
Based on the results of effectiveness research, Evertson designed a program for teachers and published the books "Classroom Management for Elementary School Teachers" (Evertson et al. 2002) and "Classroom Management for Secondary School Teachers" (Emmer et al. 2002), which are among the best-sellers of literature in classroom management.
3.1.4 Management style (exchange/ exchange)
In connection with the management of disturbances in class and classroom management, it also appears necessary to examine the management style.
As early as 1933, John Dewey argued that a teacher must be the intellectual leader of a class: "In reality the teacher is the intelectual leader of a social group" (Dewey, 1933, quoted from Apel, 2002, p. 18). In doing so, he contradicts the traditional predominance of the teacher in the teaching of his time and instead emphasizes the spiritual guidance of a group. Even then, he saw the prerequisite for discipline in a stimulating teaching-learning situation, which coincides with class leadership in today's sense.
Kurt Lewin tried to investigate this teaching-learning situation in the 50s and compared the "autocratic", the "democratic" and the "laissez-faire" management style. In doing so, the democratic management style proved to be clearly superior to the others overall. It not only led to good performance, but also ensured a high level of satisfaction among the students. A positive and trusting working atmosphere, the cohesion in the class and the promotion of self-employment were also associated with it. The authoritarian management style, in contrast to the laissez-faire style, also showed good performance results, but these were without creativity. In addition, it generated a very negative social behavior within the group in the form of irritability, hostility and dominance (cf. Lewin 1953, p. 121).
Annemarie and Reinhard Tausch built on Lewin's findings and developed the interaction concept. In order to allow a better differentiation of the styles used by Lewin, they proposed the dimensions "negative and positive regard" and "minimum-maximum management". The "Typenkonzept sozialintegratives Verhalten" favored by them is characterized by medium-sized guidance and a high appreciation, which includes emotional warmth and affection. These are prerequisites for a fruitful discipline and successful classroom management (Tausch/Tausch 1973, p. 175 ff.). Tausch and Tausch prove the importance of appreciation, understanding, sincerity and authenticity through numerous empirical evidence, such as the student surveys of Witty (1947) and Ruppert (1959) (cf. Tausch/Tausch 1973, p. 325).
They made it clear how important a good teacher-student relationship is, which is characterized by warm-heartedness, respect, help, courtesy and encouragement. Weidemann and Krapp state that a highly appreciative and medium-strong directing style of education in educational psychology is consistently considered to be favorable. Furthermore, it has been proven "dass Kinder sich in einem solchen Erziehungsklima zu empathiefähigen, kooperativen und selbständigen Individuen entwickeln" (Weidenmann/Krapp 1986, p. 308). In his studies on leadership style, Horst Nickel has expanded the concept of Tausch and Tausch to include the dimension of stimulating and guiding, which is also necessary to capture the pedagogical action in the class. This is characterized by the promotion of independence, self-initiative and general psychological performance (cf. Nickel 1974, p. 74). In the discussion about management style, however, his concept achieved little significance.
Although the results of Tausch and Tausch provide useful general information for social interaction in the classroom, they are not sufficient in practice insofar as they do not offer concrete proposals for the implementation of their theoretical framework in the classroom.
The democratic or socially integrative management style favored here coincides with significant aspects of today's classroom management concept and can be seen as a prevention strategy with regard to teaching disorders due to its cooperative and appreciative character, while autocratic behavior of the teacher leads to "Verschlechterung des Beziehung zu Erziehern, späterer Unangepasstheit, negativen gefühlsmässigen Erfahrungen [und] ablehnenden Reaktionen“ führe " (Tausch/Tausch 1973, p. 175).
3.1.5 Haertel, Wang and Walberg
One of the most important studies related to teaching quality is the meta-analysis of the condition factors of school performance by Wang, Haertel and Walberg (1993). The meta-analysis was based on 11000 comparisons between good and bad teaching. Class leadership is listed in the first place in the ranking of factors influencing good teaching, followed by the characteristics of the students, the support of the parents, the teacher student interaction, the class climate, etc. (Wang/Haertel/Wahlberg 1993, p. 272 ff.).
3.1.6 Helmke (scholastic study)
Helmke states: "Die internationale Forschung zeigt, dass kein anderes Merkmal so eindeutig und konsistent mit dem Leistungsniveau und dem Leistungsfortschritt von Schulklassen verknüpft ist wie die Klassenführung" and refers to several studies (Helmke 2009, p. 174).
Helmke himself was able to determine in the scholastic study by video recordings of the lessons and a survey of the students a positive effect of the class guidance on the learning of the students. Accordingly, a systematic connection between the attention felt by the pupils and the use of learning time was shown (Helmke/Weinert 1997, p. 136).
The maintenance of attention and a high use of learning time imply a reduced occurrence of disturbances, which is why this study is also relevant with regard to the encounter of disturbances in the classroom.
3.2 Comparison between theory and practice
(State of research on the practical part of the work)
Rüedi notes that there is a research gap regarding the strategies and procedures actually applied in classrooms related to "Disziplin und Strafe". Far too little empirical research has been done into what is being done and to what extent the measures used have proven themselves from the teacher's point of view (Rüedi 2007, p. 170). This is where this work comes in.
The rather sparse state of research, which is relevant for the practical part of this work, will be briefly presented at this point.
3.2.1 Successful strategies and types - Mayr et al.
An Austrian study examined which pedagogical strategies successful teachers use in order to achieve good cooperation and few disturbances (cf. Lohmann 2012, p. 34). The authors Mayr and Fartacek summarized discipline-related action strategies from the specialist literature, as well as various teacher and student surveys and bundled them in three patterns of action:
Socio-pedagogical action (promoting relationships)
Correct, objective action (designing lessons)
Disciplining action (controlling behavior)
The study came to the conclusion that all three dimensions must be taken into account in order to prevent and cope with disturbances in class. It was noteworthy that the combination of strategies from the three areas was weighted differently among the successful teachers. While some promoted social relationships more, others focused mainly on stimulating teaching, others more on controlling strategies. The distribution certainly depends on the attitudes and personal characteristics of each teacher. However, the choice of strategies also varies depending on the respective class (cf. Lohmann 2012, p. 36). An overview of the research group's studies can be found in Mayr (2008).
3.2.2 LCH survey on discipline difficulties in Schools in German-speaking Switzerland
Of particular interest with regard to the gap between theory and practice described above is the survey conducted by the Umbrella Association of Swiss Teachers (LCH) on the subject of "Disziplinschwierigkeiten" (LCH 1998). The questionnaire, completed by 648 participants, included several thematic areas, including the strategies used to overcome the difficulties and the priorities for action to prevent and overcome the disciplinary difficulties.
The comparison between literature recommendations and the ultimately really used measures in the event of a discipline difficulty is illuminating. The disciplinary action can be summarized into five strategies, namely communicative, authoritarian and isolating, as well as immediate measures and additional penalties. The communicative strategies were most frequently applied and at the same time considered to be the most effective – corresponding to the results of other studies" (cf. Kummer 2000, quoted from Rüedi 2007, p. 170).
Within the communicative strategies, the dialogue and the conversation with the class are seen by the teachers as the most effective in encountering discipline difficulties. In principle, this corresponds to the pedagogical literature recommendations. In terms of emergency measures, admonitions continue to be used most frequently, although their effectiveness is considered to be very low. The most effective way to judge is the implementation of the disturbing student, which is often used. Additional penalties are placed in second place in terms of their effectiveness (cf. Rüedi 2007, p. 171).
3.2.3 Nolting's survey
Nolting conducted a similar survey on a smaller scale. The sentence "Damit in der Schulklasse nur wenig Disziplinprobleme auftreten, ist es vor allem wichtig, dass man…" was supplemented by 101 teachers. The answers were classified by Nolting into four categories. The keyword "rules" was the most strongly represented (18.6%). Response to disturbances (12.9%) such as discussing the incident and issuing sanctions form another block. With 22.3%, the largest complex is the teaching management, which has qualitative characteristics such as e.g. includes a good structuring and method change. Equally important to the respondents was the design of social-emotional relationships. For example, about 20% of the data related to aspects such as creating a positive climate (4.9%) or building good relationships with the students. The rest referred to different aspects such as being a role model, being competent, granting freedom, etc. (cf. Nolting 2011, p. 26 f.)
3.3 Critical reflection on the state of research
The research presented here should be critically examined at this point. In general, it is to be seen as a shortcoming that, especially in the German-speaking world, due to the predominantly humanities orientation in pedagogy, empirical research is neglected. Helmke states:
"Es gibt zwar zahlreiche Praxisberichte, theoretische Abhandlungen, Modellversuchsberichte und Ratgeberliteratur zum Unterricht, aber nur wenige empirische Untersuchungen, deren Stichprobenplan, Design und statistische Auswertung methodischen Standards entspricht" (Helmke 2009, p. 17).
In view of this statement, the findings just presented must be viewed with caution. This also applies to the strategies presented in the following chapters with regard to teaching disorders, which are mainly based on current advice literature on teaching. The theoretical part is therefore partially substantiated with empirical findings and results from research.
Also to be seen critically are correlations between a teaching characteristic and a target criterion such as e.g. a low-interference teaching. These alone are not sufficient for the proof of effectiveness, since the interdependence of characteristic and target criterion makes it difficult to draw clear conclusions (cf. Helmke 2009, p. 24).
Simple correlations, such as those in the survey studies (PISA, DESI, TIMMS, IGLU), "grundsätzlich keine Aussagen über Wirkungszusammenhänge und sind deshalb stets sehr vorsichtig zu interpretieren" (cf. Helmke 2009, p. 24). Only studies with experimental or quasi-experimental design, in which individual teaching characteristics are systematically varied and other characteristics are kept constant, as well as limited longitudinal studies are meaningful (ibid.).
An obvious hurdle within teaching research is the complexity of teaching with its numerous influencing factors, which are interwoven and mutually dependent. In pedagogical literature, one speaks of the "Faktorenkomplexion des Unterrichts". Isolating individual features is difficult. In such a complex network, it is not difficult to understand that research results cannot be traced back with complete certainty to individual teaching characteristics or leadership strategies. Meyer and Jank speak of an unavoidable "rabiaten Komplexitätsreduktion“ in der Forschung, welche die Gültigkeit ihrer Ergebnisse „grundsätzlich beschränkt”” (Jank/Meyer 2003, p. 103).
A connection between process and product quality, i.e. between individual teaching characteristics to be investigated and their supposed results, is never deterministic, but always probabilistic. The corresponding studies, therefore, can only be seen as a probability (cf. Helmke 2009, p. 25).
In view of these critical points, the findings and studies presented above must be taken with caution. Certainly, neither these studies nor the strategies based on them and subsequently presented can give certainty and a guarantee as to how disturbances in class should best be countered and which characteristics are scientifically considered to be scientifically sound. Nevertheless, the research of Kounin, Evertson, etc. represents decisive and significant achievements in educational science, which are of high relevance, especially in practice, and are an enrichment for teachers and students.
3.4 Current literature on the subject
The topic of "Unterrichtsstörungen" is increasingly to be found in the pedagogical literature, especially in recent years. In the German-speaking countries, for example, there are numerous more up-to-date studies and guides for teachers on how to deal with disturbances in class. Gert Lohmann's "Mit Schülern klarkommen. Professioneller Umgang mit Unterrichtsstörungen" (2012) and Hans-Peter Nolting's "Disturbances in the school class" (2011) both appeared in the 9th. edition, which highlights the growing importance and demand in relation to this topic. Both authors outline the problem of disturbances and conflicts in the classroom and subsequently try to provide teachers with prevention and reaction strategies for their handling. Michaels Pfitzner's "Kevin tötet mir den letzten Nerv" (2007), Christas D. Schäfer's "Wege zur Lösung von Unterrichtsstörungen" (2006), Gustav Keller's "Disziplinmanagement in der Schulklasse" (2008) and above all Rainer Winkel's "Der gestörte Unterricht" are other well-known books in this field.
In the Anglo-American area, especially with regard to classroom management, there is a whole range of works. The extremely successful textbook "Effective Teaching Methods" (Borich 2006) offers two extensive chapters on "Classroom Management" and "Classroom Order and Discipline". In addition to Evertson's books on classroom management, which he and Weinstein published in 2006 and published in a very comprehensive "Handbook of Classroom Management", should be mentioned.
4 Strategies in dealing with disturbances in class
The preventive and reactive strategies explained in the following are based primarily on Lohmann's meta-strategies for the professional handling of teaching disorders and are supplemented and expanded by the sources from the educational literature and research, most of which have already been mentioned. The subdivision into discipline management, relationship level and teaching level is taken from Lohmann and is based on the dimension worked out by Mayr et al. (see above).
4.1 Preventive strategies
Recent research is based on Kounin's findings, but has supplemented and modified them and expanded teacher behaviour by further facets in addition to the teaching level. In the following, a division on three levels is presented, which show various preventive strategies and measures, which were produced and collected by Nolting, Lohmann, Eichhorn and researchers of recent times.
4.1.1 Discipline management level and organization obtaining information about the class and students in advance
The first day of school is the most important day in a student's school year (see Eichhorn 2012, p. 17). As a result, the teacher’s preparation begins even before the first day of school. This includes obtaining performance-relevant and social-emotional information. Knowledge, for example, with regard to class dynamics, possible tensions or ADHD students in the class enables the teacher to plan lessons better, which can be taken into account when classifying small groups or forming the seating arrangement (cf. Eichhorn 2012, p. 17 ff.). In this way, possible disruptive factors or even conflicts can be minimized or remedied from the outset.
Organize classrooms
A well-organized classroom can not only positively influence the working atmosphere and the flow of lessons, but it also reduces disturbances. For this purpose, the furnishing of the classroom must be chosen in such a way that materials are accessible to students at all times, interruptions are avoided by appropriate organization and the teacher has a good overview of the class at all times (cf. Emmer/Evertson, 2009, p. 3). Walls can be provided with class rules, a homework board, or other information that makes sense for students, allowing students quick access. The seating arrangement depends on the predominant form of teaching – frontal teaching or group work (cf. Eichhorn 2012, p. 17 ff.).
Establishing rules together
Rules represent expectations of behavior and regulate the teaching process in the classroom. It is up to the teacher to become aware of their own expectations and to implement them in concrete rules (cf. Nolting, 2011, p. 43 ff.). The importance of classroom rules was demonstrated in a study by Emmer, Evertson, and Anderson (1980). An early introduction of the classroom rules in the first days and weeks proved to be advantageous, which was initially consistently remembered and drawn attention to. In his meta-study, Marzano calculated the effect value (-.763) of the design and implementation of rules and procedures, which included a 28% decrease in disturbances (Marzano 2003, p. 8). The students should be successively involved in finding the rules, which reduces the external determination and increases the acceptance on the part of the students. McPhillimy (1996, p. 41) pleads for as few, as sensible and as positively formulated rules as possible (commandments instead of prohibitions). In order to increase the binding character, the rules developed can then be made transparent by a poster in the classroom and "ratifiziert" by the signatures of the students (cf. Lohmann 2012, p. 131).
Taking your own rules seriously
Especially at the beginning of a new school year, it seems worthwhile to pay attention to compliance with the rules in a concentrated and consistent manner, despite initially greater effort (cf. Lohmann 2012, p. 131). This also includes not inadvertently violating it yourself, for example by starting to speak even before it is quiet.
Creating incentives or rewards for respecting the rules In order to positively influence compliance with the rules, it is advisable to praise the students again and again and to reward them with titles, prizes or privileges if they have adhered to the rules in an exemplary manner (cf. Lohmann 2012, p. 131; cf. Nolting 2011, p. 51). It is an operant conditioning that comes from behavioral learning psychology and has been sufficiently researched scientifically.
Define meaningful consequences
In connection with the rules, the consequences must also be clearly formulated in order to increase their efficiency (cf. Helmke 2009, p. 180). Lohmann also advises meaningful consequences that are timely, transparent and neither arbitrary nor humiliating. They serve to help the students in question to follow the rules better in the future. Self-reflection arcs can be particularly useful (cf. Lohmann 2012, p. 133).
Introducing routines
Establishing recurring, uniform procedures is essential for the creation of structure in the classroom. Routines for initiating the lesson, checking the homework or working quietly on their own offer students behavioral security in the various situations and thus also reduce potential disturbances (see Lohmann 2012, p. 134; Eichhorn 2012, p. 107). The effectiveness of routines can also be increased if they are agreed with colleagues and are as uniform as possible, which leads to less irritation and more safety on the part of the students.
Forming a class council
A particularly self-reliant way of finding rules can be found in the "Klassenrat". Lohmann sees this as a legislative assembly of the students of a class, which advises and decides on rules, consequences and conflicts (cf. Lohmann 2012, p. 124).
Using non-verbal communication techniques
According to the "keep the ball flat" principle, it makes it a good thing to first resort to non-verbal communication techniques in the event of emerging or minor disturbances. Facial expressions, gestures, signals and the addition of the source of interference can prevent minor occurrences inconspicuously (cf. Helmke 2009, p. 180; cf. Lohmann 2012, p. 124).
Setting up room anchors
In connection with non-verbal communication technologies, Lohmann also sees the establishment of "Raumankern" as advantageous. Thus, for teaching, disciplining or other teaching situations, different locations can be chosen, which the students then associate with the corresponding action. The taking of the "Disziplinierungsortes" by the teacher can thus provide peace without big words (cf. Lohmann 2012, p. 158 f.).
[...]
- Quote paper
- Matthias Gonszcz (Author), 2012, Classroom disruptions. Preventive and reactive measures compared between theory and practice, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1168132
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