The primary purpose of this essay is to deconstruct the negative conception of philosophy, providing insight into its nature not only as an aspect of the general human (intellectual) endeavor to acquire self-knowledge, but also to make the philosophical enterprise accessible not only to students making a fresh contact with the discipline or the Universities but also the lay persons who are interested in self-understanding, liberation and critical evaluation of the perennial ideas of human existence.
This essay uses the two principal tools of philosophy namely; language and Logic to deploy philosophical expertise and mastery for everyday existential value. Through the language tool, the student and lay readers of philosophy are capacitated with a good command of language of communication to achieve clarity of thought, analysis of ideas and cognitive advantage over nature. The Logic tool on the other hand adds to human capacity the means of proving valid or invalid arguments through the general principles and techniques of good reasoning to the communication or articulation of ideas via the use of symbols.
Using these tools, philosophy enlightens humanity, encourages open mindedness and broadens our sensibilities and sensitivity to the ideas of tolerance cooperation and compassion among others. It is here assumed that, knowledge of philosophy will generate and grow our conceptual and theoretical framework for perceiving, feeling, evaluating and transforming reality in our everyday lived lives.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Nature and Definitions of Philosophy
Philosophy as Epistemological Concerns
Philosophy as Metaphysical Concerns
Philosophy as a Dialogic Endeavour
The Origin/Sources of Philosophy
Areas of Philosophy
The Value of philosophy?
The Ten Commandments of Philosophy
Conclusion
WHY STUDY PHILOSOPHY
Introduction
Reasons for Studying Philosophy
The Achievement of Philosophy
Philosophy and the Making of Africa/Nigeria
Conclusion
References
Introduction:
Philosophy is first known to many as an academic discipline that is not only esoteric and accessible only to the initiated, but a play with language, a pastime of the idle or the misguided and good for nothing individuals that do not add value to the economy of any nation. Understood in this sense, philosophy remains feared and misunderstood and left for idle speculators. This misconception accounts for the relatively unknown status and value of philosophy in contemporary society. The primary purpose of this essay is to deconstruct this primordial conception of philosophy, providing insight into its nature not only as an aspect of the general human (intellectual) endeavor to acquire self-knowledge, i.e., knowledge of the human person in relation to the environment in which her/his activities takes place, but also to make the philosophical enterprise accessible not only to students making a fresh contact with the discipline our the Universities but also the lay persons who are interested in self-understanding, liberation and critical evaluation of the perennial ideas of human existence. This essay uses the two principal tools of philosophy namely; language and Logic to deploy philosophical expertise and mastery for every day existential value. For as wisely put by A.J. Ayer, “a Philosopher who has no mastery of language would be as helpless as a mathematician who could not handle numerals …”1 Through the language tool, the student and lay readers of philosophy are capacitated with a good command of language of communication to achieve clarity of thought, analysis of ideas and cognitive advantage over nature. The Logic tool on the other hand adds to human capacity the means of proving valid or invalid arguments through the general principles and techniques of good reasoning to the communication or articulation of ideas via the use of symbols.2 Using these tools, philosophy enlightens humanity, encourages open mindedness and broadens our sensibilities and sensitivity to the ideas of tolerance cooperation and compassion among others. It is here assumed that, knowledge of philosophy will generate and grow our conceptual and theoretical framework for perceiving, feeling, evaluating and transforming reality in our everyday lived lives.
Nature and Definitions of Philosophy
Etymologically, Philosophy has been defined as the love of wisdom. This concept of Philosophy is rooted in the Greek wordsPhilos(Love) andSophia(Wisdom). Understood as such, philosophy does not only seek knowledge for personal gains, it endeavours to seek wisdom which consists in the ability to draw meaning from experience, to judge experience wisely; and to see beyond what merely meets the eye. The long history of philosophical studies over the centuries teaches us that, philosophy in its traditional sense includes all knowledge and all the sciences. It suggests man’s desire to appropriate wisdom to be able to relate facts to each other, to transcend the empirically limited judgments and experiences, to get into higher ream where he (man) becomes like a seer, almost a prophet who sees further and understands better than most men. This quality of philosophy presents it as the critical examination of ideas about us and the world, the search for truth through reasoning. Philosophy thus becomesthe critical examination of the ideas we live by3 and, the quest for the foundations of our existence. Going by this definition, philosophy is said to be the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.4 The term was probably coined by Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE). As an academic discipline, philosophy concerns itself with questions of how one should live (ethics); what sorts of things exist and what are their essential natures (metaphysics); what counts as genuine knowledge (epistemology); and what are the correct principles of reasoning (logic)5 . These investigations (of the nature, causes, or principles of reality, knowledge, or values, are all based on logical reasoning rather than empirical methods6 Broadly speaking therefore, philosophy has three concerns: how the world hangs together, how our beliefs can be justified, and how to live7 .
Such was the concern of the pathfinders of philosophical studies; Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander, Democritus, Pythagoras, Plato and Aristotle among others who sought to know beyond ordinary experience, mathematical and empirical knowledge.8 In summary therefore, philosophy becomes for us hard thinking about important issues of life. Such definitions have their uses, of course, but the student will only discover what philosophy really is by studying and doing it. It is clear that philosophy itself can be defined in different ways. We shall give here three definitions of philosophy:
- That which emphasizes the epistemological concerns of philosophy
- That which looks at the metaphysical concerns of philosophy
- That which caters for the central activity philosophy as a rational dialogue
1. Philosophy as Epistemological Concerns
sees philosophy is Critical Evaluation and Analysis of all Human Knowledge.As we have already observed, philosophy is very much concerned with the evaluation of human knowledge and the quest for truth. This conception of philosophy clearly belongs to the post Cartesian era. Traditional philosophers had certainly been aware of the critical role of philosophy over the centuries. But none of them brought critical problems of human knowledge into the center as Descartes (d.1952) and others after him did. These philosophers made human knowledge itself' the prime philosophic problem. While Plato, Aristotle and Aquinas were conscious of such problems they did not dominate their enquiries in a way that has happened to philosophy since the 16th century. In any case the critical emphasis in philosophy has given rise to a distinctly epistemological definition of philosophy as a critical evaluation of all human knowledge with a view to establishing its scope and limit.9 Here understood, we draw attention to the fact that philosophy examines, estimates and judges the claims made on behalf of different points of view regarding principles, meaning of concepts, decisions etc.
Philosophy also concerns itself with 'the scope and limit' of knowledge. It is here that differences arise among philosophers concerning the extent of human knowledge. Put in proper perspective, philosophy is thus defined as a doctrine of the absolute boundaries of all possible knowledge. Such is perhaps the conception of philosophy that appeals to the reasoned minds of the likes of A. J. Ayer, Rudolf Carnap and other positivists who reduced philosophy to the theory of knowledge. This is the basis on which all other possible objects of cognition are studied by the specialized sciences and there is nothing left for philosophy but to study science itself, the fact of knowledge for the liberation of society.10
2. Philosophy as Metaphysical Concerns sees
philosophy as the Search for Ultimate Reality.Since the very beginnings of philosophy in the 7th century before Christ, attempts have been made to discover the ultimate nature of things, the basic source of reality and change in the universe. Thales (624-546) derived all things from water; Anaximanes (588-524) claim it was air, for Heraclitus (540-475) it was fire, for Anaximander it was the boundless (indeterminate substance). Parmenides (b.540) went on to claim that reality is unchangeable while change itself is an illusion. Heraclitus, on the other hand claimed that change is the stuff of things and stability is an illusion. Plato (427-347) and Aristotle (384-322) proposed theories that attempted to cater for the two obvious elements of things-stability and change in discovering the ultimate source of things.
These pathfinders made no distinction between philosophy and science. They merely reflected on their immediate environment and soon discovered that there was more to the world than sense data and their possible combinations. In their reasoned conviction, Philosophy does not lend itself or lead one to a new world though, it does provide us with a new knowledge which cannot be reduced to space and time or the constituents of sense data. Philosophy provides us with a new knowledge of things already known.
While they were not critical in the sense of present day philosophical discourse, they all the same questioned the assumptions of knowledge. That the mind was capable and in fact attained truth was an accepted fact among them. Consequently the early philosophers devoted all their attention practically to knowledge, the object of enquiry itself. Thus they were metaphysical in that they were concerned with reality and they were systematic in so far as they conceived of their enquiry as the outline of a system. For these pathfinders, Philosophy is a body of natural knowledge methodically acquired and ordered, which undertakes to give ‘the fundamental explanation of all things’.11
This definition clearly considers philosophy from the point of view of its object, namely, what philosophy is concerned with. Each word has its importance. First of all philosophy is a 'body of natural knowledge'. This phrase distinguishes philosophy from theology and implies that we are dealing with rational knowledge. Secondly, philosophy is a “methodically acquired and ordered” knowledge. This means that philosophy proceeds by regular steps from observation and experience to a reasoned explanation of both of them. Thirdly, philosophy “undertakes to give the fundamental explanation of all things”. Here we reach the distinctive characteristic of philosophy as a natural form of inquiry. By saying we are concerned with the fundamental aspects of all things we reach beyond everyday enquiries and scientific explanations. By saying we are concerned with 'all' things, we go beyond the scope of any of the particular sciences. Another definition of philosophy, which in fact looks at it from the metaphysical angle has been advanced by Ogundowole. He states that, Philosophy is the science of all things in their ultimate causes as known through the natural light of reason.12
It goes without saying that these definitions are quite controversial. The student will learn about such controversies as he read more philosophy.
3. Philosophy as a Dialogic Endeavour
is associated with the father figure Philosopher, Socrates, who, above all things, believed in approaching truth by way of questions and answers. As such an activity, philosophy is very much a matter of question, answers, and questions. However abstract or abstruse the enquiry may be, it can always be brought down to this formula. Assuming that we are discussing principles, explanations, concepts, we may define philosophy as“Asking questions and questioning answers until you come to an answer that is unquestionable or a question that is unanswerable”. In such an exercise as asking questions and questioning the answers, there are really only two limits and they are placed there by the very nature of the philosophic enterprise itself. These limits are 'the unquestionable answers' and the 'unanswerable question'. In this regard, philosophy presupposes nothing more or less than the pursuit of truth. If there is no hope of truth there are no answers. If we already have the truth there are no further questions. If we already have the truth there are no further questions. Sometimes reaching the truth might be the realization that we cannot go any further in questions. If, and when this situation arises, philosophy ceases in favour of a specialized area of knowledge, i.e. history, religion, Literature, sociology, the various sciences, psychology etc. This method if inquiry was in use by the intelligent Greek citizens to get knowledge started in all areas of endeavor, namely, mathematics, morality, biology, politics Sociology history, astronomy economics among others. As reported by Dave Robinson and Judy Groves, “they looked beyond official religion for their political and ethical values … by asking fundamental questions outside of myths, they started doing philosophy”13 This explains the suggestion of Bertrand Russell that, Philosophy sits astride the field of science and theology, applying reason to hypotheses in areas where hard facts are not yet available14 . It can thus be said that, philosophy has its own unique areas of enquiry, quite different from that of any other subject. In philosophy, we learn to identify, and think carefully about the most basic ideas and theories of human existence and nature in what can easily be characterized as ‘conceptual plumbing’ or ‘conceptual engineering’. As highlighted by Clare Sanders and others15 , “philosophy looks behind our everyday concerns to examine the systems and structures which support our thinking (and which ordinarily we take for granted), and to test their soundness”. Because of this distinctive approach it is often easier to capture the nature of philosophy by providing examples of ‘doing philosophy’ rather than defining its field of study. This helps us to appreciate more fully how – even when the object of our study is common to more than one discipline – philosophy has a distinctive contribution to make to our knowledge and understanding of the world. It is this conception of philosophy that qualifies it asthe mother discipline. The following conceptualizations are more likely to broaden our conceptual understanding of this mother discipline.
i. Philosophy as a Rational Basis to Life
This description of philosophy goes back to Socrates: "the unexamined life is not worth living". It is also expressed by Thoreau (d.1862): 'to be a philosopher is not merely to have subtle thoughts ... but to love wisdom so as to live according to its dictates, a life of simplicity, independence, magnanimity and trust'. Thus philosophy is not a sterile discussion of abstract notions lying outside experience but a resolute and rational attempt at understanding life in all its immensity, variety but above all, its totality. Such is what Socrates lived and died for. He saw himself as a philosopher of sense, born to know and live the truth. To know what is good is to be good: it is to lead a virtuous life. As one man put it: 'Life has meaning: to find its meaning is my meat and drink'. Philosophy is therefore said to be "the search for the ideal life and how to live it".
ii. Philosophy as Reflective Thinking and Reasoned, Inquiry
Philosophy claims to have a distinctive method of enquiry and therefore it can be described as an inquiry that is reflective, general, definitional and interpretative. First of all, philosophy is reflective. This means that philosophy proceeds by way of arguments and criticism and not by experiments and verification. It supposes experiences and experiment but it goes beyond the empirical (experience) while it reflects on it. It engages in critical evaluation and thinking: i.e. critical thinking as reasonable and reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do. Secondly, philosophy is general in its method. This means that it enquires into the general nature of things or the meaning of general concepts e.g. 'knowledge value' etc. Thirdly philosophy is definitional. By this we mean that philosophy concerns itself with certain typical questions with a view to discovering the essence of definition or at least the description of concepts and things. The question of the type “what is progress” is usually a request for a definition. Fourthly, philosophical method is interpretative. By this we mean that philosophy concerns itself with the meaning and relations between various concepts. It presents a way of seeing' the world. Every philosophy of consequence has a distinctive approach or insight on things.
iii. Philosophy as an Attempt to Gain a View of the Whole
This is a very traditional view of philosophy. It looks upon philosophy as a search. It is an activity through which man reaches the unknown, into that which is hidden from him. On the other hand, this very search shows that man already has at least some initial notion of what he is looking for. That which is absolutely and, totally outside one's knowledge cannot be pursued. The drive behind the search is exactly the desire to verify and elucidate our natural knowledge of reality. Thus, as we have often said, philosophy does not introduce the student to a new world of knowledge, but to a new knowledge of a world he or she always knew. For this reason knowing how to philosophize is more important than knowing about philosophy.
The philosophical search, moreover, has the characteristic that it goes beyond the values and events of everyday life. It opens a new horizon, which at the same time is strange and fascinating. The road to the ultimate root of all reality is difficult and does not promise any quick and easy results. As in all investigations, there will be moments of insight alternating with periods of darkness and seemingly fruitless grouping. But if one continues his efforts, he will soon discover that he greatly gains by it. The philosophical search is concerned with reality. This last word is very familiar but when one tries to explain what it represents he meets with unexpected difficulties.
While dreaming that I am a proud millionaire, I may be happy with it as long as the dream lives. Once I wake up, I know that my millionaire status was not real. It was only a product of my imagination and existed only in the mind. When the mind ceased to consider its own creation, this also ceased to exist. Real is the opposite of that which is not real. Consequently, we may describe real and reality as that whose existence is not totally encompassed by 'being considered'. Whether I think of it or not, the earth moves round the sun, my heart beats regularly, waters flow through rivers, etc. the being of all these things is not limited to being an object of consideration. They all are real. It is this conception of philosophy that Wilhelm Windelband describes philosophy as the science of normal consciousness.16
The term 'reality' indicates the totality of all that does not exist solely as an object of our consideration. It includes, not only myself, but all my surroundings, all human beings, the whole world etc. 'In a word, reality stands for everything that does not existing merely as an object of the human mind; whether it is visible or invisible, material or spiritual, finite or infinite. It is of this great comprehensive universality that the philosopher desires to reach the ultimate root. Clearly this has been and is still in some quarters a very ambitious undertaking we shall be discussing more so this approach when we study the tasks of the philosopher, yesterday and today. Among certain contemporary philosophers it is a view that has been criticized as naive and presumptuous.
iv. Philosophy as Analysis of Language and the Clarification of Concepts
This is a description of philosophy according to which a careful study of how language is actually used, taught and developed in everyday discourse and illuminate, and even transform or dissolve, time-honoured philosophical problems. These problems are seen as arising, often if not invariably, because thinkers, misled by superficial grammatical similarities or their own fondness for uniformity, have ignored relevant differences in the functions often and hence misused them. For example, philosophers have wrongly though that 'cows are red' and 'cows are exiting' have the same logical function and as result have drawn wrong conclusions based on a misunderstanding of the function of language. Thus, philosophy as a whole is conceptual analysis.
The concepts that logical analysis of linguistic analysis deals with are largely determined by the problems that rise. Such philosophizing is an activity of analysis, usually less on a set of doctrines than on sensitivity to nuances of language. This approach has been in fashion since World War II and it is especially-characteristic of English philosophy but traces its origins much further back. Though influenced by the early work of Wittgenstein and Russell's logical atomism, its main protagonists were the later Wittgenstein, J.L. Austin and Gilbert Ryle. It strongly protests against any grandiose metaphysical systems such as the description of philosophy as a search for totality suggests.
v. Philosophy as Problems and the Solutions.
This is an attempt at describing philosophy by concentrating on the wide range of problems it deals with which problems are characterized by generality, obscurity, elusiveness and depth. This character of philosophy is buried in the human desire to find satisfactory answers or solutions to the critical questions or problems of humanity. While the philosopher seeks and provides answers and or solutions, they are not definitive. As Omoregbe wisely warns, "no answers (in philosophy) can be taken as definitive in such a dogmatic way as to put an end to any further questions".17 Thus, to argue as some philosophers do (conclusively) that philosophy entails unquestionable answers and unanswerable questions is to say the least uncharacteristic of philosophical discourse.
The Origin/Sources of Philosophy:
i. The search in wonder act as the beginning of philosophy. All wonder is not philosophical though, we become philosophical when we seek ultimate answers about the basic and fundamental questions which arise from our cogitation or the ideas we live by.
ii. The search for certainly brings about philosophical cogitation. The art of asking questions and questioning answers about all things provides a window through which man avails himself not only of knowledge but journeys his way to wisdom. This art of critical evaluation and examination of the ideas we live by is philosophysui generis.
iii. The search for unity also generates philosophy. The sciences give information: Physics, Chemistry, Biology does this. Philosophy analyzes and interprets the significance of scientific findings in their ultimate meanings.
iv. The Search for definition: Many things in life make us face ourselves. The search for this "identity", this "meaning", this "self-worth" is a source of philosophy.
v. The Hazards of Life: The unexamined life is not worth living. Reflection on the hazards of life; death, guilt-suffering, vulnerability in relation to people and things creates a philosophy or philosophical ideas.
Philosophers deal only with ideas. But not any ideas; they are indeed special ideas. They are characterized as very general, and they are analyzed in depth. Such ideas are, for example, 'thing', 'event', 'time', 'good', 'justice', 'development', 'progress', 'right', 'equality', 'law' etc. These are ideas that arise in all areas of human discourse from many concrete issues. Their analysis is at times necessary in order that we may adequately resolve the concrete issues. For if there are no issues, no concrete problems, there is no philosophy. Thus for philosophical enquiry, three stages are involved (though sometimes two 2): many of them stay two. The three stages are:
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i. The Concrete Issues
Philosophy, it is claimed begins with life and concerns itself with real, concrete issues. Here understood, philosophy is a search for explanations. We deal with issues everyday of our lives and many of them can be quickly resolved without invoking any philosophical considerations because in fact we do accept the principles and the evidence relevant to the case. But when we question such principles or evidence before the court of reason we are moving more self-consciously into the area and realm of philosophical thinking.
Thus if I question the propriety of promise keeping there is no point in showing me other people making and keeping promises because it is the whole justification of the practice that is put in question by me. The point is made by reflecting on the following dialogue:
A: You ought to have written to your parents last Sunday.
B: Why?
A: Because you promised you would write every Sunday.
B: I know I did, but I've been awfully busy.
Why was it so important to keep my promise?
A: Not just that promise - any promise.
It’s wrong even to break a promise.
B: Well, I used to think that, but now I'm not sure.
What makes you think it's always wrong to break a promise?
A: My reason is simply that most people in our society disapprove of it. You know perfectly well that they do.
B: Of course I know that most people in our society disapprove of breaking promises, but does that prove it really is always wrong to do it? The majority opinion in our society could be mistaken, couldn't it? I don't see why it should be taken for granted that what most Nigerians think is wrong and what really is wrong should always coincide. What is the connection between the two?
It is this kind of questioning that really pushes us to the second stage of enquiry. Then we have embarked on the philosophical trail and the exercise is genuinely philosophical.
ii. The Justification of Principles
This stage is the search for justification of principles i.e. questioning the standards or conventional reasons before the human court of reason itself. As long as we accept the principles or explanations, which are relevant to an issue there is nothing philosophical about the inquiry. If I say John ought to return the biro to Michael because he promised to, that would normally be the end of the matter. And this is so because; we accept the principle that promises ought to be kept. But as we have just seen, if the principle is questioned then we have embarked on the philosophical trail. This stage puts us as being engaged in a philosophical enterprise with the view to establishing our own standards.
But if I am to vindicate a particular principle or an understanding of it I am compelled to analyze the concepts from which the principle comes. In our case, I might have to analyze concepts like 'promise', 'covenant', 'agreement' etc. before embarking on a justification of the principle of promise keeping itself. After all, philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning of concepts.
The analysis of the concepts and the justification of principles do not of themselves solve concrete issues, but they enable us to do so with the aid of the concrete data. Thus philosophy begins with concrete issues and it returns to the concrete. Furthermore even though philosophy 'deals only with ideas, it affects many things besides ideas. Our analysis of the concept of 'equality' has quite far reaching consequences for the ways we treat each other.
iii. Search for Meaning
The stage of questioning standards and conventions puts us already in the search for meaning. The purpose of questioning becomes very important e.g. what is life? What is value? etc. It may be concluded thus; philosophy itself originates with the concrete issues of life. Such issues raise philosophical problems when the conventional norms or standards are questioned. Such questioning normally leads to further step of the search for meanings and this explains why philosophy is described as justifying our actions as well as search for certainty.
Areas of Philosophy
The mere mention of philosophy presupposes a global discourse on all disciplines. For sure, it is the mother discipline. It was from philosophy that all other academic disciplines branched out with the passage of time and it is to philosophy that these disciplines return for recuperation. If we take it that the scope of philosophy is as wide as the ranges of possible issues then there is no systematic listing of areas that will do justice to the actual range and complexity of philosophical problems themselves.
Furthermore the problems of philosophy are closely intertwined: the more you explore one problem, the more you see how it calls for the consideration of others. And to see such connections, to understand how a solution to one problem helps you with or even commits you to another is one of the interesting things about-philosophy. Philosophy is thus understood by some as a window through which reality unfolds itself the way it is, as it is. But when you first come to study it systematically, you must find places to begin and for this purpose, it is convenient to sort out the problems into various groups.
One method of classification is to collect together all the philosophical questions that arise from examining beliefs in each recognized special field of knowledge or experience for example; we might gather all philosophical questions concerning our beliefs about the events and processes of history. If we did this, we would have to include some very broad questions, such as the question whether all events whatsoever are governed by law. There would be many others, not quite so general or so fundamental, but still sufficiently so to be considered philosophical; are there repeated cyclical patterns in history? Can the historian be objective? Do the actions of individual great men, as opposed to the yearnings and discontents of ordinary men, determine historical change? .
It is true that questions of this degree of generality and obscurity are sometimes dealt with by thinkers whose training and experience are those of the historian rather than those of the philosopher, for they lie near the borderline between history and philosophy. But since they arise out of reflection upon historical events and written history, they may be grouped together as the philosophy of history.
The phrase “'Philosophy of” is an important one for the philosopher, though there is a tendency for people who are not philosophers to cast about with it rather loosely. When we consider broad areas of knowledge or experience and inquire into the foundations of belief in these areas, we get groups of problem that are philosophical and are separately investigated and written about. We get, in short, such branches of philosophy as these: 'Philosophy of Religion', 'Philosophy of Society', 'Philosophy of Science', 'Philosophy of History', 'Philosophy of Political Science', 'philosophy of Mathematics', 'Philosophy of law', 'philosophy of education', 'Philosophy of Psychology', 'Philosophy of Language', and Philosophy of Arts and Literature amongst others.
These are distinguishable areas of philosophical interest and they make a useful classification for some purposes, but the classification is not very basic because the categories overlap. For example, some of the questions that arise from the philosophical examination of education will turn out to be the same as those that arise out of social science or history. In fact, certain questions, such as those concerning the nature of sound reasoning in general (questions of logic) will re- appear in all of these areas. Such a classification is less successful in bringing out the internal character and development of philosophical study itself. We must, therefore, choose other approaches whose descriptions are more in accord with one's natural development of the philosophical talent.
The philosopher's work is to acquire knowledge; his tool, reason. The philosopher before he begins his work must examine reason to discover the use he would make of it. The study of reason as an instrument of acquiring knowledge or means of discovering truth is called logic. As an exercise in reasoning at a very deep level, logic itself is a part of philosophy, indeed, a privileged part. For Aristotle, then, logic is the instrument (the "organon") by means of which we come to know anything. He proposed as formal rules for correct reasoning the basic principles of the categorical logic that was universally accepted by Western philosophers until the nineteenth century. This system of thought regards assertions of the subject-predicate form as the primary expressions of truth, in which features or properties are shown to inhere in individual substances. In every discipline of human knowledge, then, we seek to establish the things of some sort have features of a certain kind.18
A first group of questions, therefore, revolves round the problems of knowledge. This part of philosophy enquires into the validity and scope of human knowledge. It investigates into the nature and essential conditions of knowledge. It is very concerned with words like 'true', 'false', 'probable', 'logical', 'certain', 'proof, 'reason', 'faith', 'intuition', 'sense experience', 'knowledge', 'opinion'. We ask such questions as 'What makes one proposition follow logically from another'? 'Is religious belief based on faith'? 'Is anything certain'? 'Can we trust our sense experience'? When we study what is commonly called logic (formal or informal) we assume that the mind is capable of knowing truth and that it enjoys knowledge, which is valid and authentic. Logic itself considers the rules of valid reasoning. How are propositions related to each other and the examination of the different methods of reasoning? In particular, Logic concerns itself with the rules of reasoning.
When by the study of epistemology and logic one has made oneself familiar and master of his tool, the philosopher can set to work. What that work is we know already: to acquire knowledge of things by reasoning about them. If however we consider the aim of learning, there are two distinct types of rational knowledge.
Firstly, we can employ our reasoning scientifically, solely for the pleasure of the knowledge itself, that is, simply to satisfy the pure desire to know. The sciences that deal with these matters are known as the theoretical sciences as, for example, biology, chemistry, psychology, sociology etc. If we were to consider philosophy as a 'science' in this sense we would say that its distinctive aim is to account for things in their roots and as knowable by reason. This is a search for the first causes of things and it is, per excellence, a 'science' that is theoretical philosophy.
Secondly, we can employ our reason scientifically for our profit and the improvement of our life; the sciences thus acquired exist to procure by some kind activity the good of man (the practical sciences). Such sciences are, for example, medicine, economics engineering and the like. Perhaps we should note here that it is not so much that these are two severely separated sets of sciences, theoretical and practical, but rather that all sciences have elements of both and that in some, one aspect prevails while in the other does.
Now if there is a 'practical science' which seeks to regulate human acts as a basic guide-the object of that 'science' will be that which is most fundamental in the practical order, namely, the absolute good of man, that is, the absolute good naturally-knowable. Such a 'science' is practical philosophy - otherwise termed moral philosophy or ethics. We must bear in mind that although the object of ethics is not merely knowledge for its own sake, its rule of truth is that which is, and the processes of argument are governed by the canons of right reasoning.
With the distinctions we have made to date in mind, we might say that the four fundamental areas of philosophy are:
·Epistemology(theory of knowledge) which inquires the validity, scope of human knowledge. It investigates into the nature, and essential conditions of knowledge. It attempts to answer such questions as: Is anything certain? Can we trust our senses or experience? What makes a position follow logically from another",
·Metaphysics(reality; questions that concerns what lies after or beyond the physical world of sensory experience). Metaphysics is the study of existents or of concrete beings in so far as they exist or might exist. And since all things share in so far as they exist, then metaphysics or ontology is the study of all things from that point of view. Such a study reaches its culminating point when it discovers or at least raises the problem of a Supreme Being. In this sense Ontology or Metaphysics terminates in the philosophy of God fondly referred to as the problem of BIENG. It incorporates such works or speculations about meaning and nature of the universe i.e. questions which arise after the physical problems have been resolved.
·Ethics(human action) which is the study of moral values in its rightness and wrongness, the norms of morality, the sources of morality, origin and nature of conscience. It is most frequently defined as "a code of conduct or set of principle by which men live". It refers to ‘customs’, ‘manners’, ‘characters’ in relation to one's own and others i.e. how we ought to behave in relation to ourselves and others. And since man is naturally orientated toward the absolute and consequently reaches out to the sphere of religious values, ethics here joins hands with the philosophy of religion. This area of study is sometimes known as Theosophy.
·Logic:Logic is the art or science of correct reasoning. It is the study of the rules, principles and methods used to identify correct reasoning from incorrect reasoning. In other words, logic deals with the standard for demarcating correct argument from incorrect argument. Logic is essentially a branch of philosophy. Logic as a discipline deals with the criteria and the principles which can be used to test arguments and to sort correct arguments from bad or incorrect arguments generally called “fallacies”. The students of the arts, humanities and social sciences are involved in the use of language and arguments all the way. Semantics cannot do without logic, especially in determining the meaning of words and speech. The students of law use logic in their arguments and the legal profession needs logic, especially in evidence and cross-examination. Logic with its relevance finds a place in our everyday communication. Logic as an art of correct reasoning, as a study of the basic and fundamental rules governing reasoning and arguments, is a basic study in our university system due to its applicability and relevance.
·Aesthetics(philosophy of Beauty i.e appreciation of the Arts) (61) This is the least popular branch of philosophy. First coined by Baumgarten (1750), it is derived from the Greekaisthesiswhich means ‘Sense Perception’ which in itself connotes the science whose central point is in turn the philosophical Aesthetics. It seeks to expound the essence of the beautiful in general and in particular, nature and arts from its foundation in essence. On a general and practical note, Godfrey Ozumba puts forward an all encompassing description of aesthetics from the essentialists and objectivists perspective. Aesthetics for him thus means the appreciation of the essential or constituting elements that are objectively discernible and which could be termed 'ugly' or 'beautiful'.19
There are many other areas of philosophy which in one way or another derive from these. In line also with these distinctions we may now briefly describe the other areas of philosophy as follows:
i.Philosophy of Religionwhich revolve around questions concerning the existence and nature of God, the extent and limit of man's knowledge about God; the various philosophical approaches to the problem of God. It discusses problems like the relationship between religion and science, the problem of the existence of God, the problem of evil, the immortality of the soul etc. It has other titles: Theodicy or Natural Theology.
ii.Cosmology or Philosophy of Scienceconcerns itself with a fourth group of problems and deal in particular with what is the basic constitution of the particular beings that enter the world of human experience? In particular what is the nature of the physical universe? How are scientific laws established and validated? etc.
iii.Philosophical Psychology or Philosophical Anthropology.This is a discipline within philosophy that seeks to unify the several empirical investigations of human nature in an effort to understand individuals as both creatures of their environment and creators of their own values.
The Value of philosophy?
Students who embark on the study of Philosophy are asked why they study it. Obviously students have their own personal reasons for such study of Philosophy. But if we can say that Philosophy is difficult to read and hard to understand; if its subject matter is obscure, its results unspectacular; if fewer and fewer people are interested in philosophy; if it is true that a philosopher only knocks down what another built up over a life time, and that they have only interpreted the world without changing it. If indeed, philosophy has no pragmatic value either to get on in life or no lure in its own right, if Philosophy does not put food on the table, create wealth and heaven for the individual here on earth and thus establish for him/her a world worth living in and dying for, then why study it?
To quote Bertrand Russell, “if the study of philosophy has any value at all for others than students of philosophy, it must be only indirectly, through its effects upon the lives of those who study it. It is in these effects, therefore, if anywhere, that the value of philosophy must be primarily sought”.20 He further avers that:
Philosophy, like all other studies, aims primarily at knowledge. The knowledge it aims at is the kind of knowledge which gives unity and system to the body of the sciences, and the kind which results from a critical examination of the grounds of our convictions, prejudices, and beliefs. But it cannot be maintained that philosophy has had any very great measure of success in its attempts to provide definite answers to its questions. If you ask a mathematician, a mineralogist, a historian, or any other man of learning, what definite body of truths has been ascertained by his science, his answer will last as long as you are willing to listen. But if you put the same question to a philosopher, he will, if he is candid, have to confess that his study has not achieved positive results such as have been achieved by other sciences. It is true that this is partly accounted for by the fact that, as soon as definite knowledge concerning any subject becomes possible, this subject ceases to be called philosophy, and becomes a separate science.[21]
Deducible from the above is the fact that a search for the value of philosophy within the context of which the value of mathematics, astronomy and the sciences will amount to a dissipation of energy in futility. Philosophy has a value, perhaps its chief value- through the greatness of the objects which it contemplates, and the freedom from narrow and personal aims resulting from this contemplation. The life of the instinctive man is shut up within the circle of his private interests: family and friends may be included, but the outer world is not regarded except as it may help or hinder what comes within the circle of instinctive wishes. In such a life there is something feverish and confined, in comparison with which the philosophic life is calm and free. The private world of instinctive interests is a small one, set in the midst of a great and powerful world which must, sooner or later, lay our private world in ruins. Unless we can so enlarge our interests as to include the whole outer world, we remain like a garrison in a beleaguered fortress, knowing that the enemy prevents escape and that ultimate surrender is inevitable. In such a life there is no peace, but a constant strife between the insistence of desire and the powerlessness of will. In one way or another, if our life is to be great and free, we must escape this prison and this strife. One way of escape is by philosophic contemplation.22
Regarding the question of philosophy, the great teachers, the encyclopedic Bertrand Russell avers that:
Philosophy is to be studied, not for the sake of any definite answers to its questions. Since no definite answers can, as a rule, be known to be true, but rather for the sake of the questions themselves; because these questions enlarge our conception of what is possible. enrich our intellectual imagination, and diminish the dogmatic -assurance which closes the mind against speculation; but above all because, through the greatness of the universe which philosophy contemplates, the mind also is rendered great, and becomes capable of that union with the universe which constitutes its highest good.[23]
John Dewey on the other hand says philosophy." is a generalized theory of criticism, its ultimate value for life-experience is that it continuously provides instruments for the criticism of those values -- whether of beliefs, institutions, actions or products -- that are found in all aspects of experience”.
There are no right answers but there are many conclusions that can be drawn from our careful reflection on ideas presented to us. Many of these conclusions can be satisfying because of how we have arrived at them, exciting because of what we have come to know, and influential in the ways they may affect our future thinking and lives. In other words, doing philosophy is good for you! Our lives are complex and our individual circumstances different from all others. Doing philosophy can help us understand better the world we live in as individuals, it can help us lead a more useful and fulfilling life, it can help us move towards something Socrates (470–399 BC) called the ‘good life’. In short, doing philosophy can make us a little wiser and help us flourish as human beings. It can point us towards what Aristotle (384–322 BC) thought the object of life - living and doing well, flourishing. Philosophy is thinking, not just thinking in the way that every day is done, (e.g. about where I should go this afternoon and whether or not it will rain tomorrow) but a special kind of thinking. It involves us in abstract thought and ideas (e.g. not where I should go this afternoon but why I am here at all, not whether or not it will rain but what do I mean by the sensation of wetness when I talk about rain). This sort of thinking helps us to ask questions about the often-puzzling world in which we find ourselves. First, it allows us to work out whether the question is meaningful (and that we are justified in pursuing an answer), second, it helps us work through the problem, obtain a conclusion and decide whether that conclusion is valid. Whether or not the conclusion is true will depend on the truth contained in the argument. The method of philosophy, as a way of thinking, can be (and is) used in all fields of human enquiry: scientific, ethical, religious, political or any other matter psychologically important to us as individuals or members of society. We may say that philosophy is a systematic method of asking valid questions about uncertainties and hence stipulate that:
The value of philosophy is, in fact, to be sought largely in its very uncertainty. The man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the co-operation or consent of his deliberate reason.[24]
This uncommon value of Philosophy to humanity is also seen in the link between philosophy and good governance, peace and prosperity of nations. The wise conclusion of Plato in this direction speaks volumes. In his very words,
Unless it shall come to pass that philosophers are kings or those who are now called kings and potentates be imbued with sufficient measure of genuine philosophy … there will be no cessation of ills for the state nor … for the human race; neither can the commonwealth, which we have now sketched in theory, ever till see the light of the day.25
In examining ideas, values and principles, individuals and societies live by, philosophy organizes and gives directions to humanity to live for each other. Even in their errors, philosophers are highly illuminating. J. Bruce26 is on record as asserting that, a great philosopher in the wrong is like a beacon on the reefs which says to seamen, steer clear of me. He enables men to identify the errors from which they suffer, and to become clearly aware of them, and to struggle against them. Philosophy in use here is an essential need for politicians and the general public, in so far as humanity is not living in an irrational animal society, but society made up of persons endowed with intelligence and freedom.
The Ten Commandments of Philosophy
As one builds upon one's own philosophy of life in aid of one's pilgrimage, it is a wise choice to be guided by the following Ten Commandments of philosophy.27 One is however advised to test them, refine them, and possibly reject some of them or add better ones as one proceeds on his/her own pursuit of wisdom.
1. Allow the spirit of wonder to flourish in your breast: Philosophy begins with deep wonder about the universe and about who we are, where we came from and where we are going. What is this life all about?
2. Doubt everything until the evidence convince you of its truth; be reasonably cautious, a moderate skeptic, and suspicious of those who claim to have the truth. Doubt is the soul's laxative. Do not fear intellectual inquiry as Johann Goethe says, "The masses fear the intellectual, but it is stupidity that they should fear, if they only realized how dangerous it really is"
3. Love the Truth: Philosophy is the external search for truth, a search for which inevitability fails and yet is never defeated; which continually eludes us, but which always guides us. This free intellectual life of the mind is the noblest inheritance of the western world; it is also the hope of the future (W.T Jones)
4. Divide and Conquer: Divide each problem and theory into its smallest essential components in order to analyze each unit carefully. This is the analytic method.
5. Collect and Construct: Build a coherent argument or theory from component parts. One should move from the simple secure foundations to the complex and comprehensive. As mentioned previously, Russell once said that the aim of philosophical argument was to move from simple propositions so obvious that no one would think of doubting them via a method of argument to conclusions that no one could help but doubt them. The important thing is to have a coherent, well- founded, tightly reasoned set of beliefs that can withstand the opposition.
6. Conjecture and Refute: Make complete survey of possible objection to your opposition, looking for counter examples and subtle mistakes. Following a suggestion of philosopher Karl Popper, philosophy is a system of conjecture and refutation. Seek bold hypotheses and seek to find disconfirmations of your favorite positions. In this way, by a process of elimination, you will negatively and indirectly and gradually approach the truth.
7. Revise and Rebuild: Be willing to revise, reject, and modify your beliefs and the degree with which you hold any belief. Acknowledge that you have many false beliefs and be grateful to those who correct you.
8. Seek Simplicity: Prefer the simplest explanation to the more complex of all things being equal. This is the principle of parsimony, sometimes known as Occam's razor.
9. Live the Truth: Appropriate your ideas in a personal way, so that even as the objective truth is a correspondence of the thought to the world, this lived truth will be a correspondence to the life to the thought. As Kierkegaard said, here is a definition of (subjective) truth: holding fast to an objective uncertainty in an appropriation process of the most passionate inwardness is the truth, the highest truth available for an existing individual.
10. Live the Good: Let the practical conclusions of a philosophical reflection on the moral life inspire and motivate you to action. Let moral truth transform your life so that you shine like a jewel growing in its own light amidst the darkness of ignorance.
Conclusion:
The humble attempt in the above discourse has been to expose the embodied concept of philosophy. In this attempt, we have shown that, the pursuit of truth and wisdom, harkening to the voice of wisdom and letting the fruit of this endeavor transform one's life is what the philosophic enterprise is all about. This is what the great Socrates meant by the dictum: "The unexamined life is not worth living". Philosophy as (Philos) love, of (Sophia) wisdom suggest rightly that, it is obviously hard thinking about the important issues of life and that, there is no subject or issue necessarily beyond its domain. It is thus no exaggeration to say that whatever seems vital to humankind is a candidate for philosophical examination. While everything is not philosophy or philosophical, everything can, through interrogation, become philosophical. It is for this reason that it can be said that philosophy consists in the rational examination of the world views, metaphysical theories, ethical systems, and even the limits of reason. This is summed up by the king of Philosophers, Plato that all philosophers must soar with unwearied passion until they grasp the true nature of things as they really are28 . This critical function of philosophy is shared by Sodipo for whom philosophy is not limited to social criticism but a “reflective and critical thinking about the concepts and principle which we use to organize our experience in morals, religion, in social and public life, in law, in history and the natural sciences”29
It is thus no contradiction to say that the primary job of philosophy is to clarify questions and determine what sorts of answers are acceptable. Such was the established habit of Socrates; of pulling the rug from under complacent people’s feet that he was nicknamed “theGadfly. His other nickname, theMidwifealso reminiscences his other habit of assisting people with the birth of knowledge. With knowledge (Philosophy), humanity could come to know their true selves, know what was good and act accordingly. Hence the purpose of Philosophy as has been established above, is the art of finding thetruthand living by it, not of wining debates.
This is where philosophy comes into its own. In studying philosophy, we learn to take a step back from our everyday think- ing, and to explore the deeper, bigger questions which underpin our thought. We learn to identify hidden connections and flawed reasoning, and we seek to develop our thinking and theories so that they are less prone to such errors, gaps and inconsistencies. This is a vital contribution to human knowledge. It is also a crucial life skill. In studying philosophy at university, you will not merely, or even primarily, learn to master a body of knowledge. ‘The heart of philosophy is a set of modes of thinking’2 – the focus of your philosophical study will be to learn not what to believe, but how to think. This is one of the distinctive strengths, and key benefits, of studying philosophy. Whereas the knowledge learnt in other disciplines may become outdated, due to future discoveries, for example, the ability to think critically will not. In fact, it will equip you with the tools of thought you need to react to changing situations. Studying philosophy sharpens your analytical abilities, enabling you to identify and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses in any position. It also hones your ability to construct and articulate cogent arguments of your own. It prompts you to work across disciplinary boundaries, and to think flexibly and creatively about problems which do not present immediate solutions. Because philosophy is an activity as much as a body of knowledge, it also develops your ability to think and work independently. There are no no-go areas for philosophical enquiry, and philosophical techniques are universally applicable. Different schools of philosophy have argued for systems which colour every aspect of human life in highly contrasted ways. You will view the universe and the place of humanity within it differently if you are an atheist rather than a theist; if you believe that all our knowledge is derived from experience rather than from a combination of experience and reason; or if you believe that our will is completely determined by causal laws rather than capable of its own free action. Even if you suspend judgement on such issues (as some philosophers justifiably do), your study of them will leave you enriched with an under- standing of the complexity of the physical and human sciences which students of other disciplines may lack. All these abilities will enhance your educational experience while you are studying, but they will also make a lifelong difference to your future. Such qualities are in huge demand in the wider world – employers in all fields look to recruit potential leaders who can demonstrate analysis, judgement, problem solving, influencing skills, flexibility, creativity and high-level communication skills.3 Although all degree programmes seek to develop such skills, arguably no discipline grants them the pre-eminence they are accorded in philosophy. A degree in philosophy, therefore, provides you with an excellent grounding for your future – its distinctive focus on developing your critical thinking abilities is one which has value in all walks of life.
WHY STUDY PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy, like all other studies, aims primarily at knowledge. The knowledge it aims at is the kind of knowledge which gives unity and system to the body of the sciences, and the kind which results from a critical examination of the grounds of our convictions, prejudices, and beliefs. But it cannot be maintained that philosophy has had any very great measure of success in its attempts to provide definite answers to its questions. If you ask a mathematician, a mineralogist, a historian, or any other man of learning, what definite body of truths has been ascertained by his science, his answer will last as long as you are willing to listen. But if you put the same question to a philosopher, he will, if he is candid, have to confess that his study has not achieved positive results such as have been achieved by other sciences. It is true that this is partly accounted for by the fact that, as soon as definite knowledge concerning any subject becomes possible, this subject ceases to be called philosophy, and becomes a separate science. The whole study of the heavens, which now belongs to astronomy, was once included in philosophy: Newton's great work was called 'the mathematical principles of natural philosophy'. Similarly, the study of the human mind, which was a part of philosophy, has now been separated from philosophy and has become the science of psychology. Thus, to a great extent, the uncertainty of philosophy is more apparent than real: those questions which are already capable of definite answers are placed in the sciences, while those only to which at present, no definite answer can be given, remain to form the residue which is called philosophy.
This is, however, only a part of the truth concerning the uncertainty of philosophy. There are many question - and among them those that are of the profoundest interest to our spiritual life - which, so far as we can see, must remain insoluble to the human intellect unless its powers become of quite a different order from what they are now. Has the universe any unity of plan or purpose, or is it a fortuitous concourse of atoms? Is consciousness a permanent part of the universe, giving hope of indefinite growth in wisdom, or is it a transitory accident on a small planet on which life must ultimately become impossible? Are good and evil of importance to the universe or only to man? Such questions are asked by philosophy, and variously answered by various philosophers. But it would seem that, whether answers be otherwise discoverable or not, the answers suggested by philosophy are none of them demonstrably true. Yet, however slight may be the hope of discovering an answer, it is part of the business of philosophy to continue the consideration of such questions, to make us aware of their importance, to examine all the approaches to them, and to keep alive that speculative interest in the universe which is apt to be killed by confining ourselves to definitely ascertainable knowledge.
Many philosophers, it is true, have held that philosophy could establish the truth of certain answers to such fundamental questions. They have supposed that what is of most importance in religious beliefs could be proved by strict demonstration to be true. In order to judge of such attempts, it is necessary to take a survey of human knowledge, and to form an opinion as to its methods and its limitations. On such a subject it would be unwise to pronounce dogmatically; but if the investigations of our previous chapters have not led us astray, we shall be compelled to renounce the hope of finding philosophical proofs of religious beliefs. We cannot, therefore, include as part of the value of philosophy any definite set of answers to such questions. Hence, once more, the value of philosophy must not depend upon any supposed body of definitely ascertainable knowledge to be acquired by those who study it.(Bertrand Russell'sThe Problems of Philosophy)
Introduction
"Why Study Philosophy?"or"Why are you Studying Philosophy?"are questions that students of philosophy are almost always confronted and/ or affronted with. Quite often, the inquirers themselves are not in a good position to explain to themselves and others why they studied what they studied though, there is an element of self satisfaction in what can best be described as the expression of subject jealousies (i.e. my course of study is better than yours). One may attempt an answer to the posers though, the question is best answered if it is restated as;what can Philosophy contribute to society?A similar question was posed in the Times Magazine on January 7th 1966 and entitled“What (if anything) to expect from today's Philosophers'.A similar title appears in one of the chapters of Kwasi Wiredu's recent book: "Philosophy and an African Culture". The chapter in question is"What can Philosophy do for Africa?These titles are somewhat provocative because they mean to suggest that there is some doubt as to what the Philosophers have to offer to the world today; there may even be the. suspicion that it has nothing to offer. Such questions are not asked of engineers, doctors or bakers because it appears to be quite obvious that they have something to offer and what they have to offer.
It is argued here that, students who embark the study of Philosophy are asked why they study it. Obviously students have their own personal reasons for such study of Philosophy. But if we can say that Philosophy is difficult to read and hard to understand; if its subject matter is obscure, its results unspectacular; if fewer and fewer people are interested in philosophy; if it is true that a philosopher only knocks down what another built up over a life time, and that they have only interpreted the world without changing it. If indeed, philosophy has no pragmatic value either to get on in life or no lure in its own right, if Philosophy does not put food on the table, create wealth and heaven for the individual here on earth and thus establish for him/her a world worth living in and dying for, then why study it? Philosophy as the Parent Discipline Here is what the great teachers have to say about the question of philosophy;
Aristotle answers the question thus:
If you ought to philosophize you ought to philosophize; and if you ought not to philosophize you ought to philosophize: therefore, in any case you ought to philosophize. For if philosophy exists, we certainly ought to philosophize. Since it exists; and ifit does not exist, in that case too we ought to inquire why philosophy does not exist -- and by inquiring we philosophize; for inquiry is the cause of philosophizing. (quoted from lewis & clark, 25)
The encyclopedic Bertrand Russell captures it this way:
philosophy is to be studied, not for the sake of any definite answers to its questions. since no definite answers can, as a rule, be known to be true, but rather for the sake of the questions themselves; because these questions enlarge our conception of what is possible. enrich our intellectual imagination, and diminish the dogmatic -assurance which closes the mind against speculation; but above all because, through the greatness of the universe which philosophy contemplates, the mind also is rendered great, and becomes capable of that union with the universe which constitutes its highest good. (96)
John Dewey on the other hand says:
philosophy." is a generalized theory of criticism, Its ultimate value for life-experience is that it continuously provides instruments for the criticism of those values -- whether of beliefs, institutions, actions or products -- that are found in all aspects of experience.
It may be well important to argue a case for the study of Philosophy by stating first and foremost the obvious that, Philosophy is The Parent Discipline to which all other forms of knowledge systems acknowledge, Great minds like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle acted as pathfinders of human intellectual architecture. The likes of Adam Smith, Jean-Jaques Rousseau, Bertrand Russell, Francis Bacon, all master Philosophers, have variously made stupendous contributions in economic, political, and social spheres and have similarly bathed the world population with knowledge and wisdom. It is today dated that the philosopher is the one who is ultimately responsible for the general outlook and the ideals of certain societies and. cultures. Karl Marx and Friederich Engels are on record as the ones who created the point of view of the Communist party; Thomas Jefferson, John Locke and John Stuart Mills have similarly developed the theories which prevailed in democratic societies,
AsThe parent Discipline, Philosophy feeds the other areas -of human study with the breast of critical examination and analysis of issues concerning our world and ourselves in order to be more and more human, Such is why the zenith of human knowledge/learning is tagged Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in the various areas of study like Physics, History, English, Law, or Medicine among others, This is the thinking that has informed the introduction of two compulsory philosophy courses namely,GST 102: Introduction to philosophy and Logic, andGST 104: History- and philosophy of Sciencefor Nigerian undergraduates in all Nigerian Universities.
Every science is mistress in her own house, in as much as every, science possesses the indispensible and sufficient means of attaining truth within its own sphere and no one is entitled to deny the truth thus proved ... But philosophy, and especially philosophy in the highest sense, that is metaphysics, is the sovereign science. Therefore it is competent to judge every other human science, rejecting as false every scientific hypothesis which contradict its results. (Lewis & Clark, 12)
The above quip represents the jealousies of Philosophy in its standing as the highest of all the branches of human knowledge which at the same time, is in the true sense human wisdom. Thus, Philosophy in this sense is a type of wisdom whose nature consists essentially in knowing (with certainty) and being able to state why a thing is ~hat it is and cannot be otherwise, knowing by causes( Maritain, 76). It goes to argue from this understanding that, the chief business of Philosophy is the search for causes, and the knowledge with which they are concerned is not a merely probable or commonsensical knowledge, but that which compels the assent of the intellect, like the knowledge which the geometrician conveys by his demonstrations. Argued as such, Philosophy is a science whose rule, its criterion of truth, is the evidence of its object. Knowledge according to this science is by reason or what is called the natural light of the human intellect. Philosophy thus inquires into everything-knowledge itself and its methods, being and non-being, good and evil, motion, the world, animate and inanimate beings, man and God. Philosophy therefore is concerned with everything, is a universal science.
Going by the subject matter of Philosophy, it becomes a known fact that, philosophy is something real and that, the human mind is compelled by its very constitution to ask questions and to question answers; the questions and the answers that involve the principles on which the certainty of the conclusions reached by every science and every other area of study in the last resort depends. Such is perhaps the compelling request of Aristotle that everyone must philosophise because Philosophy is concerned with everything which exists, every possible object or knowledge. It is therefore no confusion to classify the other disciplines; History, Education, Literature, Language, Law, Political Science, Economics among others as the step children of Philosophy. It is perhaps this thinking that informs the conclusion of Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas to state convincingly that, Philosophy and the corpus of other sciences have the same material object (everything knowable). But the formal object of Philosophy is first causes, of the other sciences secondary causes. Descartes is even more emphatic when he says, Philosophy absorbs the other sciences- is the whole of science of which metaphysics, physics, mechanics, medicine and ethics were the principal subdivisions.30
People today often emphasize "marketability" when they talk about a university education. It would be a mistake to think that this is -- or should be -- all there is to university, but prospective students (and their parents) may still wonder how philosophy relates to marketability. If marketability means learning what will make you an attractive candidate for employment, then philosophy has a great deal to offer. There is no doubt that an education in business, commerce, finance, marketing, economics, etc. provides immediate skills and practical tools for finding entry-level employment. Philosophy does not emphasize such skills but it provides an ideal atmosphere in which one can develop the more basic abilities on which they depend. Philosophy is irrelevant to marketability only if learning how to think, analyze, and communicate ideas clearly is inapplicable to workaday life. Philosophy is out of date only if being able to form and defend an opinion is no longer a valuable ability.
And philosophy is a practically without value only if maturing through an education is useless and outmoded. All of these traits and abilities are important, indeed essential, if one wants to be a marketable employment prospect -- and, of course, a well-educated, mature, articulate, and thoughtful person.
Not everyone agrees that philosophy is the right route to success in the work world, but many experts argue that a well rounded education is the best basis for a career. In a Globe and Mail article "What it Takes to Make a Million," (April 24, 1996), Janet McFarland comments on such views:
Management guru Henry Mintzberg, who divides his time between McGill University and the European business school, ,has long criticized business school education for future CEOs and is particularly withering about MBA programs. But he admits it is hard to advise young would-be leaders to avoid business programs when recruiters favour them so much. He would want companies to look for other training in future leaders, arguing business skills cannot be taught in a classroom and are not easily transferred between companies. "I would get a university degree, not in business, but in philosophy ... Just learn to think." he says. "Then get into an industry or organization or sphere you really like and work your way up by learning to lead." ' .
Why might someone like Mintzberg call for a return to basics? Why a solid undergraduate grounding in the areas of thought and analysis, before the jump into business or any leadership-driven, top management position? There are many possible answers to these questions. It may be that leadership and top success depends on skills which are less job-specific and more general: thinking logically, analysing critically, as well as being able to communicate articulately and precisely both orally and in writing. This intellectual attitude also helps in problem solving. A businessman confirms this point thus:
My company took a contract to extract beryllium from a mine in Arizona. I called in several consulting engineers and asked, 'Can you furnish a chemical or electrolytic process that can be used at the mine site to refine directly from ore?' Back came a report saying that I was asking for the impossible- a search of the computer tapes had indicated that no such process existed. I paid the engineers for their work. Then I hired a student from Stanford University who was home for the summer. He was majoring in Latin American history with a minor in philosophy. I gave him an airplane and a credit card and told him, 'Go to Denver and research the Bureau of Mines archives and locate a process for the recovery of beryllium.' He left on Monday. I forgot to tell him that I was sending him for the possible. He came back 011 Friday. He handed me a pack of notes and booklets and said, 'Here is the process. It was developed 33 years ago at a government research station at Rolla, Mo. ' He then continued, 'And here also are other processes for the recovery of mica,' strontium, columbium, and yttrium, which also exist as residual ores that contain beryllium.' After one week of research, he was making sounds like a metallurgical expert. He is now back in school, but I am keeping track of him. When other companies are interviewing the 'engineering and the business-administration mechanics, I'll be there looking for that philosophy major.[31]
Thomas Hurka discusses these same issues in his short essay "How to Get to the Top: Study Philosophy"'(1994). How should Canada educate students to compete successfully in the business world? Some provincial governments think it is by teaching them business Recent evidence suggests this approach is mistaken. We will produce better managers if we educate them first in traditional subjects in the arts and sciences... We may do best of all if we educate them in philosophy
Consider the GMAT, used for admission to MBA programs and, ultimately, to the highest levels of management. He continues, Undergraduate business students, who you'd think would be especially well prepared for this test, do badly on it, scoring below the average for all test takers. The best results are by math students, followed by philosophy students and engineers According to a book by Michael Useem, they (arts and science students) have more difficulty finding and beginning managerial jobs than those with business or professional degrees because they lack specific skills in finance or engineering. When they are hired. It is usually lower in the company hierarchy32 . Once hired, however, they advance more rapidly than their colleagues What explains the success of arts and science students?
Corporations report that, although technical skills are most important in low-level managerial jobs, they become less so in middle and top jobs, where the key traits include communications skills, the ability to formulate problems, and reasoning skills. Liberal arts education may be weak in the prerequisites for beginning managerial jobs but provides just what's needed for success at the top. This doesn't mean there's no place for business education. Canadian industry needs specialized business skills, and our universities should supply them. But in the increasingly competitive world economy there will be a premium on vision, creativity, and analytical power, traits better fostered by 'liberal education. This points to the recommendation now heard most from chief executive officers: first an arts and science degree in a field like English, physics, or philosophy, then an MBA. First some general intellectual skills, then the specific knowledge needed to apply them in business ... And this will have another effect. Students educated in the liberal arts will be more rounded individuals, knowing more about the natural world or the history of their culture and better at reasoning about morality and politics: 'at the very least, a nice side- effect33 . (24)
In business education, philosophical training helps business stay competitive. This is because, the importance of "general intellectual skills" which philosophical studies provides high levels of business management. Because these intellectual skills can be learned through a philosophy education, it may be a prudent business decision to take philosophy.
Because philosophy provides such a comprehensive undergraduate foundation, other graduates of a philosophy program have the freedom to pursue a variety of professions or graduate degrees. Some examples Include, Law, Management, Medicine, Business, Politics, Education, Journalism, Communications Sociology, Teacher's College, etc. Here's what Anthony Lemieux, a former Laurier student and now a law student at the University of Alberta, USA, has to say to prospective lawyers:
Philosophy is an excellent pre-law program. It is one of the few disciplines that develop analytical thinking skills that are quite nicely transferable to learning the law. I noticed immediately that 1 had a bit of an edge in that way. Thus, asking what types of careers philosophy graduates can go on to pursue is like asking what kinds of sports well- trained athletes compete in. The answer, in both cases, is anything they want! Because philosophy graduates are strong in the areas of reasoning and problem-solving, the employment possibilities are virtually limitless[34]
Unarguably therefore, Philosophy is ordained to inform the other disciplines if and when there exists a lacuna, confusion, or contradiction. Jacques Maritain gives an adequate explanation thus; Physics is competent to judge its hypothesis by the laws of physics, but Philosophy is also competent to judge it by the principles of Philosophy, determining whether and how far it really contradicts the Philosophic truth in question (Maritain, 83) Using the tools of criticism and analysis, philosophy C possesses the duty to exercise its supervisory function by constantly maintaining contact with and illumining the other areas of human study whose data it interprets and renders fruitful. When therefore we consider broad areas of knowledge or experience and inquire. into the foundations of different knowledge systems, namely; 'philosophy of religion', 'philosophy of society', 'philosophy of change, philosophy of mathematics', 'philosophy of law', 'philosophy of education philosophy of language, philosophy of history and philosophy of science under the general heading of philosophy of infrastructure or philosophy of other disciplines, it is the principles of philosophy that underscore them all. They are all ordered by Wisdom; Philosophy is thus the highest of all the branches of human knowledge and is in the true sense wisdom. The other (human) sciences are subject to philosophy in the sense that it judges and governs them and defends their postulates.
The great virtue of philosophy is that it teaches not what to think, but how to think. It is the study of meaning, of the principles underlying conduct, thought and knowledge. The skills it hones are the ability to analyze, to question orthodoxies and to express things clearly. However arcane some philosophical texts may be - and not everybody can come to grips with the demands of Austrian logical positivism - the ability to formulate questions and follow arguments is the essence of education. It can also be studied at many levels. In the US, where the number of philosophy graduates has increased by 5 per cent a year during the 1 990s, only a very few go on to become professional philosophers. Their employability, at 98.9 per cent, is impressive by any standard. Philosophy has always been a good training for the law; but it is equally useful for computer scientists. In the United States of America, the Higher Education Statistics Survey puts philosophy' of science right up with medicine in its employment record for graduates.(In Nigeria, the study of philosophy is not that popular and its pragmatic relevance minimally felt though, its unseen functional value to national development cannot be ignored.
Reasons for Studying Philosophy
John Stuart Mill (d. 1873) has argued rightly that the reasons for studying philosophy run deep in the human spirit. According to him, "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied and if the fool or the pig, are of different opinion, It is because they only know their own side of the question". And Adam Smith adds (d.1970). "A man without the proper use of the intellectual faculties of a man, is if possible, more contemptible than even a coward, and seems to be mutilated and deformed in a still more essential part of the character of human nature" Immanuel Kant captures in two small words why mortals should study philosophy: sapere aude - "dare to think" for,' in this age of uncertainty, when today's vocational training may be tomorrow's passport to redundancy, "dare to think" should be the motto pinned on the wall of every undergraduate room and recruitment agency.
Philosophy delivers us from the bondage of conventional ways. of thinking. As Socrates said some four centuries before Christ 'the unexamined life is not worth living'. Either out of curiosity or the need to know we ask ourselves questions. And we ask questions because we do not have the answers. We are uncertain. The value of philosophy is, in fact, to be sought largely in its uncertainty. The man who has no spirit of philosophy in him goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age and nation, and from convictions, which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason. To such a man the world tends to become definite, finite, obvious, common objects rouse no questions, and unfamiliar possibilities contemptible. As soon as we begin to philosophize, on the contrary, we find out that, even the most everyday things lead to problems to which only incomplete answers can be given. Philosophy, though unable to tell us, with certainty what the true answer to the doubts, which it raises, is able to suggest many possibilities, which enlarge our thoughts and free them from the tyranny of custom. Thus, while diminishing our feelings of certainty, as to what things are, it greatly increases our knowledge as to what they may be; it removes the somewhat arrogant dogmatism of those who have never traveled into the regions of liberating doubt, and it keeps alive our sense of wonder by showing familiar things in an unfamiliar aspect.
But if we allow ourselves to be possessed by Philosophy then many things happen. For the influences of philosophy are both direct and indirect. Socrates, the father of Moral Philosophy, spoke about the direct influence of philosophy in the following way: The course of ignorance is that a man without being good or wise is nevertheless satisfied with himself: he has no desire for that which he feels no want.
Thinking philosophically provides a basic ingredient, indeed an essential feature of intellectual development. Without this vitamin one carries about the typical deficiency diseases of the mind: misconception of points, vagueness of reason, wooliness of expression, feebleness of intellectual grasp and emotions overworked as reasons are banished to the wilderness. In addition to engaging the great philosophers, you'll get intellectual survival skills. You'll learn how to question what passes as common knowledge and accepted wisdom, to evaluate one's own and others' positions, and to formulate new ideas. You'll be able to think, write, and speak intelligently about the texts and issues one studies. Such skills will enable one to excel in all of the other courses one takes, as well as to succeed in whatever you do after you graduate. They'll contribute to one's development as an educated citizen in a democratic society.
The direct influences of philosophy are manifold: Philosophy is not concerned with each idea, but how to think. It does not concentrate on making the weaker argument the stronger" but tests each argument in the cold, clear light of reason. Its intention is not to bamboozle the opposition into submission, but to present a point of view with clarity and tolerance; it is not much to refute your adversary but to join yourself with him in a higher viewpoint. Real philosophy does not succumb to philosophical jargon in ignorance, but consistently, coherently, it presents a vision child outlook, a viewpoint with real explanatory power.
But philosophy also has its indirect influence and these are many. In fact Philosophers are much more influential on people and on society than one night think: J.M. Keynes observation is quite relevant here:
“The idea of economists and political philosophers both when they are right and when they are wrong are more powerful than is commonly understood". Indeed the world is ruled by little else. Practical men, who believe themselves to be quite exempt from any intellectual influences, are usually the slaves of some defunct economists. I am sure that the power of vested interests is vastly exaggerated compared with the gradual encroachment of ideas (247)
Some of the influences of philosophers have become so much part of our culture that we do not appreciate the pioneer work of the philosophers in their regard. I recall in particular the morality Socrates, the contemplation of Plato, the rationality of Aquinas and the liberalism of Mill. Other influences have been more spectacular and dramatic like the formation of the modem scientific mentality in the mind of the 18th century, Hume, the contemporary atheistic culture in the mind of the 19th century, Nietzsche, or the current theories of structured inequality in the mind of
Karl Marx.
But it is often claimed that Philosophy is not of value because it is always dealing-with the same is philosopher seems all the time to be concerned with questions like " ?" Who am I? 'What ought I to do'? 'What do I hope for'? There are one could make here; I restrict myself to four of them.
(i) First of all, it is true that such questions keep reoccurring because, the philosopher is all the time pushing ahead, prodding for answers and criticizing those same answers. This does not that the answers are not important. Of course they are. But the philosopher leaves nothing to .chance. And he is very convinced that if we could get straight then we could search in the right direction, make the appropriate distinctions and discover the illuminating insights. Such a discovery of insights will not consist in a neat answer, but an insight that while it discovers, leaves more to be achieved.
(ii) If, as it appears I philosophers deal with the same questions from century to century we must look back into the History of Philosophy and See how philosophers down the ages have handled these same problems. You will discover as you read philosophy that it has been one long conversation, a dialogue in which each party makes its distinct contribution and in turn received from others. The man who tries to philosophize without learning at the feet of the great philosophers is like a man going down a dark alley blindfolded. Philosophers have given us signposts along the way. We will not be blindfolded. Some of these signposts say 'go this way' others say 'do not enter' and others still 'cull de sac'. We must learn to read the sign ourselves and see for ourselves where to go and what to do with the help of the signs. But in any case we cannot omit attending to them because otherwise we will only land ourselves in fallacies and simplicities which philosophers themselves have discovered centuries ago.
(iii) Describing philosophers as always asking the same questions does not fully describe the work of the philosopher. Plato 2000 years ago studied the problem of justice. You can say he is saying the same thing as yourself as you study justice today. But you must also admit that many things have happened in the 2000, whereby your questions and answers are much more developed and take into account many more issues than Plato might have been concerned with.
(iv) As already stated it is very tempting and superficially smart to say that philosophy is useless and 'pie in the sky'. If you feel like rejecting philosophy as muddleheaded nonsense then consider this remarks from Rahner who says, A man who refuses to commit himself for fear of following an insight that cannot be mathematically verified does not in fact remain free, but rather enters upon the worst of all commitments; that of living his life without commitment. He tries to live a life as a neutral, deciding nothing. And that itself is a decision.35
Whatever, beliefs you have about life will be more nature and convincing if you are able to reflect on them. Remember that the man or woman who will not reason is a bigot, and the one who cannot is a fool, while the one who dare not is a slave. The study of Philosophy liberates one from the traditional ways of thinking and so intellectual slavery thereby elevating one to a "mistress of one's knowledge house", not only in terms of creative imagination but also to ask questions and question our ideas believing that it is not a sign of common sense not to reason about basic issues in life or question things. Moreover, it is bad thinking to consider it sophisticated to believe in nothing, for the open mind that never makes up its mind is an empty mind. We cannot all the time be standing scoffing on the sidewalks, of truth. While none of us has monopoly on truth, we must receive our share and cherish it. If everything becomes negotiable provided there is agreement all it means is that we really accept nothing with any depth. Definitely! In philosophy courses, you'll get to respond to those questions, and many others. You'll study the ideas of ancient philosophers (such as Plato & Aristotle), modem philosophers (Descartes & Kant), and contemporary philosophers (Wittgenstein & Foucault). You'll discover what has been written concerning, in the words of Socrates, "the most important things" -- issues of human character and the conduct of life.
Additionally, philosophy discusses such topics as "What is truth?" or "Are we free?" "Does God exist?" Or "What is the purpose of life? What can I know? What should I do? What can I hope for? What does it mean to be human? Who am I? What can I become? Can I change? Philosophers also ask such questions as: What is science? What is religion? What is art? What is the relation of the community and the individual? How can we be ethical in medicine, law, and business?
It must be stated unequivocally that there are uncountable career opportunities for graduates of philosophy. As a parent discipline, Philosophy provides the milk of human understanding and develops human intellectual survival skills that are useful in science, the ministry, journalism, government, computer science, business, and other professions. In the United State of America, it is on record that, philosophy graduates are one of the three highest scoring groups on the Law School Admissions Test (LSAT), second on the Graduate Management Admissions Test (GMAT), and sixth out of fifty on the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), Together with the relevant science courses, philosophy provides a unique preparation for medical school. Such is why it is simply said to be the Parent Discipline; a combination of Wisdom and success. It is no wonder then that Ludwig Wittgenstein says of philosophy:
Working in philosophy ... like work in architecture in many respects ... is really more a working on oneself, on one's interpretation, on one's way of seeing things and what one expects of them[36]
Here's what Anthony Lemieux, a former Laurier student and now a law student at the University of Alberta, has to say to prospective lawyers: "Philosophy is an excellent pre-law program. It is one of the few disciplines that develops analytical thinking skills that are quite nicely transferable to learning the law. I noticed immediately that I had a bit of an edge in that way."
So what types of careers do philosophy graduates go on to pursue? This is like asking what kinds of sports well-trained athletes compete in. The answer, in both cases, is anything they want! Because philosophy graduates are strong in the areas of reasoning and problem-solving, the employment possibilities are virtually limitless.
In Nigeria, the journalism profession has harvested bountifully from philosophy to strengthen their investigative journalism which instruments are the ability to analyze problems, to organize ideas and issues, to assess pros and cons, and to boil down complex data. In politics, philosophy has the capacity to instantiate in the politician the charism of general problem solving, communication skills, persuasive
powers, writing skills, ability to conceptualize and anticipatory capacity which put together defines a political leader par excellence. Thus argued, philosophical questioning proves both very useful and effective even in many areas of human engineering and pragmatic sense.
The Achievement of Philosophy
i. There are words today we understand in a richer way precisely because of the work .of the philosophers. Today we have a keener sense of freedom, equality, poverty, dignity development and we can largely thank the philosopher for it. Today, the philosopher in society witnesses to the supreme dignity of thought; he points to what is eternal in men, and stimulates out thirst for pure knowledge and disinterested knowledge, for knowledge of those fundamentals about the nature of things and the nature of the mind and himself, and God - which are superior to end independent of, anything we can make or produce or create to which all our practice is appended, because we think before acting and nothing can limit the range of thought: our practical decisions depend on the stand we take on the ultimate questions that human thought is able to ask. It is no wander that Socrates calls him the Gadfly of the society.
ii. There are classics of philosophical analysis, which have stood the test of time. Historical and familiar arguments like the ontological argument of Anselm, which even Kant applauded, have been rejected once and for all, so far as claim to validity goes. Above all, it has been made clear what consequences a man commits himself to in adapting certain positions, what further difficulties certain lines of reasoning entail.
iii. There has been built upon large common store of carefully formulated philosophical concepts which have been subjected again and again to thorough going analysis. Thus we have analyses of concepts like 'truth' 'meaning', 'cause', 'ideas', 'happiness', 'value' which are much more understandable experience of analysis.
It is thus not an overstatement to underscore the functional indispensability of philosophy as a redeemer of humankind. Today, philosophers through. the power of reason have with their deeds stored up a treasury of values from which humanity can draw inspiration to save the troubled world that has been so criminally poisoned by exaggerated materialism. Philosophy is not just an effective source of knowledge; it is a useful way of life, which opens up the eyes of the human soul to eternal truths. To say therefore that a little philosophy is better than a no philosophy is to state the obvious. For Adam Smith says, "A man or woman without the proper use of his intellectual faculties of a man, is if possible, more contemptible than even a coward, and seems to be mutilated and deformed in a still more essential part of the character of human nature37
Philosophy and the Making of Africa/Nigeria
Socrates it was who centuries ago developed the dictum; the unexamined Iife is not worth living. African nations but Nigeria in particular suffers from a dozen problems that are in need of the philosopher's magic wand. These problems are encased in moral decadence, economic slavery, political parochialism and religious bigotry, all in need of critical examination. In the light of our very many critical challenges of human daily living, the Nigerian philosopher has a distinct challenge to use his encyclopedic wisdom to jointly construct and live together in societies that all can jointly judge worthwhile. It should be noted that helpful and useful - reconstructive studies of African indigenous conceptions of Man, Society and
Nature have been documented by African Philosophers like Kwesi Wiredu. Using the power of ideas therefore;
i. The Nigerian philosopher must do his share in preserving the soul of Nigerian culture without canonizing all its features. He must be sufficiently critical of these cultures without decimating them in the name of progress and reason. As ignorance and fear are driven out by knowledge, many of the anachronisms associated with religious thought patterns must be eliminated.
ii. Nigerian philosophers, in their traditional attempt to gain the view of the whole, analyse language and clarify concepts capacitates them to develop strategies of understanding and expectations that will release the great pillars of society- truth, justice, concern for others and freedom - from their traditional small-scale tribal moorings and re-set them to form the pillars of a new Nigeria in a contemporary world.
iii. Evolve a new conceptual frame within which understandings and expectations are emerging in Nigeria, to analyze the main characteristics of that frame so that in order to bring about a sense of direction one first understands the processes of social change. In a phenomenological spirit, the Nigerian philosopher must be mindful of the religious, ethnic and political divide and the growing realization that fashioning the new Nigeria has to be a work of collaboration. There has to be an increase of tolerance and generosity without a loss of commitment.
iv. The Nigerian philosopher should not only interpret the world, they should also change it by considering the Confucian leadership philosophy, which emphasized the moral element and precept in leadership development, the idea by Plutarch that leaders should converse with philosophers, Plato's reasoned position that philosophers become kings and kings become philosophers, and the teaching of Christianity concerning non-violence.
v. Here again, the functional indispensability of philosophy as the critical examination of human ideas is brought to bear on the Nigerian life; to examine the intellectual foundations of life using the best available modes of knowledge and reflection on human well-being. Philosophy then acts as basis of human existence, as a reflective and critical thinking about the concepts and principles which we use to organize the totality of human life; in morals, religion, social and political life, in law, in history and the natural sciences. For the African, such intellectual editing as is the case with philosophy provides opportunities for understanding the intellectual foundations of African culture and producing and promoting those ideas and values in terms of which the new African can be molded. This is what Oladopo describes as "the search for the guide to life"38 The search for certainty, instigated by questions enlarge our conception of what is possible and diminish the dogmatic assurance which closes the mind against speculation and renders our minds great by uniting it with the universe which constitutes its highest good.
Conclusion
Philosophy is, in commercial jargon, the ultimate "transferable work skill". That is not the only argument for expanding philosophy departments, and encouraging everybody to read Plato, or John Stuart Mill on liberty. Lecturing the Confederation of British Industry on the "sly utilitarianism" of employers, Chris Wood head, the Chief Inspector of Schools defends a liberal education as needing "no justification beyond the satisfaction and enjoyment that it brings". As stated elsewhere above, philosophy has much to offer for the making the Nigerian state. The Time Magazine article rethinks the power of philosophy when it states that, the world has both favoured and feared the philosophers' answers. Thomas Aquinas was a saint, Aristotle was tutor to Alexander the Great, and Voltaire was a confidant of kings. But Socrates was put to death, and Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake39
Thus argued, Philosophy nurtures individuality and self-esteem and broadens the range of things one can understand and enjoy. It enhances one's ability to understand other disciplines and to perceive the relationship among various fields of study. It empowers the individual's intellectual capacity to advance rationally persuasive arguments. rationally convincing arguments, and rationally compelling' arguments that can stand erect before the human court of reason. These qualities of intellectual worth are universal desires in all areas of human endeavor i.e. in politics, economy, religion and business etc. Such is why Bertrand Russell rightly suggests that,
The man who of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived sense front the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason,[40]
This point is well supported by professor Oluwole41 as she points out the indispensible value of philosophy as capacitating one to transcend empirically limit of judgments and experiences to get into a higher realm where he becomes like a seer, almost a prophet who sees further and understands better than most men. It is no wonder then that, philosophy cannot be divorced or its encyclopedic quality; hence in all ages, philosophy at inception with Socrates originates from, and concerns itself with the major problems prevalent at a given historical period of the development of mankind. The political substantiation of philosophy so elaborately canvassed by Bertrand Russell more than anything convinces us that philosophy is a valuable tool for liberation and the de-entrapment from alienation to which the people of Africa, nay Nigeria were subjected to by invading colonial powers and institutions, and to re-establish anew the universe of being for our people toward: self-reliancism. This is a task that must be accomplished by the African philosopher. For "any philosopher who denies, or fails to comprehend the relevance of philosophy to society unconsciously raises doubt about his own professional calling (and as such) not fit to come under the name tag "philosopher"42
We argue wisely the conclusion that, far from being irrelevant to practical life, philosophy is on the contrary one of the powerful forces shaping men's attitude and the structures of societies. Consequently says Omoregbe43 philosophy has much to do with national development, especially the intellectual and moral development of people which is architectonic to economic development. National Development (and human development) does not equal to material achievement but in moral and spiritual development of the individual. A civilization totals where it is far more developed materially than spiritually. But as Omoregbe rightly suggests, "this disaster can be averted if in our conception of development. We give primacy to the development of human personality through moral and intellectual development. It is here precisely that philosophy has a vital contribution to make"44
References
Agboro, Pat, "Aesthics" in E. K. Ogundowole, (ed) Philosophy and Logic: A Student Companion, ( Lagos, Department of Philosophy, University of Lagos).
Briton, K, Philosophy and the Meaning of Life, London, Oxford University Press, 1969
Durant, W, The Story of Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 1962
Ihuah, A.S, Philosophy and Logic for Beginners, Eagkle Prints, Abuja, 2018
James, W, Some Problems in Philosophy, London, Longman, 1911
Johnston, A, (ed). What is Philosophy, London, MacMillan, 1965.
Maritain, J,An Introduction to Philosophy, London, Sheed and Ward, 1979
Mason, T. F. Lecture Notes in Introduction to Philosophy, 1985
Momoh C.S (ed), Philosophy .for All Disciplines Vol. 1, Lagos, Department of Philosophy, Faculty of Arts, University of Lagos, 2000.
Ogbinaka, K, A Window into apahilosophy, (Lagos, Obara and Ogbinaka Publishers Ltd, 1995)
Ogundowole, E.K, "The Nature of Philosophy" in E. k. Ogundowole, (ed) Philosophy and Logic: A Student Companion, ( Lagos, Department of Philosophy, University of Lagos)
Oladipo, O. Thinking' About Philosophy: A General Guide, Ibadan, Hope Publications, 2008.
Omoregbe, J. I "Problems and Scope of Philosophy" in E. K. Ogundowole (ed), Philosophy, and Logic: A Student Companion, Lagos, Department of Philosophy, University of Lagos, 2002.
Omoregbe J. I, Knowing Philosophy, Lagos, Joja press Ltd
Oluwole, S. B, Meaning Scope and Conceptions of Philosophy" in Jim I
Unah, Philosophy for All Discipline, Lagos, University of Lagos, 1998.
Pojman L.P. Philosophy: The Pursuit of Wisdom, Belmont, Wadsworth Publishing-Company, 1984.
Russell, B, History of West em Philosophy, London, Allen and Unwin Ltd, 1961
, The Problems of Philosophy, London, Oxford University Press, 1959
Staniland, H. S, "What is Philosophy?", Second Order, An African Journal of Philosophy, Vol. VIII, Nos. 1&2, Jan/July 1979.
Thomas Hurka: "How to Get to the Top: Study Philosophy" ,-in Principles; Toronto: Har
Times; Think On: Philosophy is a Quintessentially Modern Discipline, August 15,1998
Why Should I study Philosophy? Department of Philosophy Lewis and Clark College, Portland, USA
Wiredu, K. Philosophy and an African Culture, London, Oxford University Press, 1980.
[...]
1 A.J. Ayer, “Philosophy and Language”, in H,D, Lewis (ed)Clarity is not Enough: Essays in Criticism of Linguistic Philosophy(London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., Second impression 1969), p59
2 Logic is of prime importance in the enterprise of philosophy, first because much of phoilosophy has to do with proving good reasons for our views or positions. Read Olusegun Oladipo, “What is Philosophy” in, R.A.Akanmidu,Footmarks in Philosophy, (Ibadan, Hope Publications 2006), p15.
3 Thecritical philosophy (German:kritischePhilosophie)movement which takes after Immanuel Kant sees the primary task of philosophy as criticism more than justification of knowledge; criticism, for Kant, meant judging as to the possibilities of knowledge before advancing to knowledge itself (from the Greekkritike (techne), or "art of judgment"). The basic task of philosophers, according to this view, is not to establish and demonstrate theories about reality, but rather to subject all theories—including those about philosophy itself—to critical review, and measure their validity by how well they withstand criticism. “Critical philosophy” is also used as another name for Kant's philosophy itself. Kant said that philosophy's proper enquiry is not about what is out there in reality, but rather about the character and foundations of experience itself. We must first judge how human reason works, and within what limits, so that we can afterwards correctly apply it to sense experience and determine whether it can be applied at all to metaphysical objects. ( see Wikipedia: The free encyclopedia) Read Staniland, H. S, "What is Philosophy?"Second Order, An African Journal of Philosophy, Vol. VIII, Nos. 1&2,Jan/July 1979 for the critical temper of philosophy.
4 Jenny Teichmann and Katherine C. Evans,Philosophy: A Beginner's Guide(Blackwell Publishing, 1999), p. 1: According to him, Philosophy is a study of problems which are ultimate, abstract and very general. These problems are concerned with the nature of existence, knowledge, morality, reason and human purpose."
5 Wikipedia,the free encyclopedia,accessed on the 10th September, 2018
6 The American Heritage Dictionary: Fifth Edition Mass Market Paperback (Houghton Mifflin Company 2012)
7 Jim Holt, New York Times Book Review, 15 Feb. 2009
8 Bertrand Russell History of Western Philosophy (London, Allen and Unwin Ltd, 1961), p. 34.
9 Briton, K, Philosophy and the Meaning of Life (London, Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 246.
10 Ogundowole, E. K, (ed) Philosophy and Logic: A Student Companion, (Lagos, Department of Philosophy, University of Lagos), p. 5
11 Ibid. p. 249
12 Ibid. p. 429
13 It should be noted here that the Greeks were the first society to refuse to take traditional answers for granted. Their attitude of mind was critical and investigative, and it is nothing more than anything else, that makes them a philosophical tribe. Read, Dave Robinson & Judy Groves’sIntroducing Plato: A Graphic Guide,(London, Icon Books 2010)
14 Read Bertrand Russell’s,A History of Western Philosophy, (London, Allen and Unwin Ltd, 1961)
15 Clare Saunders, David Mossley, George MacDonald Ross, Danielle Lamb and Julie Closs 2007
16 Windelband defended foundationalism in his bookÜber die Gewißheit der Erkenntniss.(1873), See Frederick C. Beiser (2014),The Genesis of Neo-Kantianism, 1796-1880(Oxford: Oxford University Press), p. 517.
17 Omoregbe 1. I,Knowing Philosophy, (Lagos: Joja press Ltd, 1999), p. 19.
18 Aristotle argues radically that, this logical scheme accurately represents the true nature of reality. Thought, language, and reality are all isomorphic, so careful consideration of what we say can help us to understand the way things really are. Beginning with simple descriptions of particular things, we can eventually assemble our information in order to achieve a comprehensive view of the world. For further reading, see, http://www.philosophypages.com/hy/2n.htm.
19 Godfrey Ozumba p. 102
20 Bertrand Russell,The Problems of Philosophy, p. 103
21 Bertrand Russell,The Problems of Philosophy, p. 104
22 Bertrand Russell,The Problems of Philosophy, P. 106
23 Bertrand Russell,The Problems of Philosophy, p. 96
24 Bertrand Russell, p. 105
25 Cf. Plato’s Republic, 473 Also, read, Dave Robinson & Judy Groves, London, Icon Books 2010
26 Bruce J. in Ihuah S.A. “The Problem of Right Questions in Philosophy” in A.S. IhuahPhilosophy and Logic For Beginners,(Makurdi, Philosophy Unit, Department Religion and Philosophy, Benue State University, 2010) pp.77-87
27 Louis P. Pojman, Philosophy: The Pursuit of Wisdom, Belmont, Wadsworth Publishing-Company,USA (2005) p. 10-11. Russell similarly promulgated his The Ten Commandments for those engaged in philosophical enterprise as follows..."1: Do not feel absolutely certain of anything. 2: Do not think it worthwhile to produce belief by concealing evidence, for the evidence is sure to come to light. 3: Never try to discourage thinking, for you are sure to succeed. 4: When you meet with opposition, even if it should be from your husband or your children, endeavor to overcome it by argument and not by authority, for a victory dependent upon authority is unreal and illusory. 5: Have no respect for the authority of others, for there are always contrary authorities to be found. 6: Do not use power to suppress opinions you think pernicious, for if you do the opinions will suppress you. 7: Do not fear to be eccentric in opinion, for every opinion now accepted was once eccentric. 8: Find more pleasure in intelligent dissent than in passive agreement, for, if you value intelligence as you should, the former implies a deeper agreement than the latter. 9: Be scrupulously truthful, even when truth is inconvenient, for it is more inconvenient when you try to conceal it. 10. Do not feel envious of the happiness of those who live in a fool’s paradise, for only a fool will think that it is happiness
28 Dave Robinson and Judy Groves,Introducing Plato, (London Icon Books, 2010). P.3
29 See Ayo Fadahunsi and Olusegun Oladipo (eds)Philosophy and the African Prospect: Selected Essays of Professor J. Olubi on Philosophy, Culture and Society,(Ibadan: Hope Publications, 2004) p.16.
30 St. Thomas Aquinas, in Metaphysics 1.10, 158
31 The Chronicle of Higher Education in 1982. P4
32 Michael Useem, p23
33 Ibid p24
34 Thomas Hurka: "How to Get to the Top: Study Philosophy" in Principles; Toronto: Har , p. 6
35 Karl Rahner. P. 80
36 For a better understanding of the existential value of philosophy, read, Why Should I study Philosophy by the Department of Philosophy Lewis and Clark College, Portland, USA, p. 3
37 Taken from Professor Thomas F. Mason’s Lecture Notes on Introduction to Philosophy, University of Jos. 1985
38 Oladipo, O. Thinking' About Philosophy: A General Guide, Ibadan, Hope Publications, 2008. P. 26
39 Times; Think On : Philosophy is a Quintessentially Modern Discipline August 15,1998, p. 35
40 Bertrand Russell, The Problems of Philosophy, London, Oxford University Press, 1959, p.5
41 Read Oluwole, S. B, Meaning Scope and Conceptions of Philosophy" in Jim I Unah, Philosophy for All Discipline, Lagos, University of Lagos, 1998.
42 Read E.K, Ogundowole, "The Nature of Philosophy" in E. k. Ogundowole, (ed) Philosophy and Logic: A Student Companion, (Lagos, Department of Philosophy, University of Lagos), p. 16
43 Omoregbe, J. I "Problems and Scope of Philosophy" in E. K. Ogundowole (ed), Philosophy, and Logic: A Student Companion, Lagos, Department of Philosophy, University of Lagos, 2002. P. 99.
44 Omoregbe J. I, Knowing Philosophy, Lagos, Joja press Ltd, p. 200
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X. -
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¡Carge sus propios textos! Gane dinero y un iPhone X.