Female Representation in the Politics of Papua New Guinea

What is women’s status in Politics as citizens of Papua New Guinea?

Texto Academico , 2021 , 18 Páginas , Calificación: 6.0

Estudios de género

Women in Papua New Guinea are constitutionally recognised as the countries citizens and should have equal citizenship status as men. However, Papua New Guinea's 'big man' culture founded upon patriarchic beliefs and values often undermines women's status and participation in the country's political arena. Therefore, this literature review examines women's political status in the country and the extent of women's participation in the country's political system.

Papua New Guinea's Melanesian culture was built upon Patriarchy. According to Christ, patriarchy is often defined as male dominance. In traditional Papua New Guinea societies before the European contact, tribal warfare between warring tribes were common. It was the males (men) who defended the tribe, specifically women and children against the invading tribes. In return from their protection, women and children submit to their authority and consider fathers as the head of the family. This system has evolved over thousands of years and eventually inbuilt into the societies social, political and economical structure which got itself rooted in almost all Melanesian sub-cultures. However, the ideology of patriarchy has taken a new twist. Instead of protecting the women, the males take advantage of the system and often treat women as inferior beings. Women are often being abused and supressed from participating especially in the societies’ political activities. The patriarchy system has now developed into a system that the male dominance is not out of love and respect but out of treat and violence towards women. It is a system controlled by powerful men, the man who can use treat or other form of violence to supress women. It evolves around the idea that the world is tough and in order to survive one has to be tough physically to survive. The idea is often considered as primitive as it does not consider the feelings of the other people in the society; however, because it is well developed and constructed over the years, it is considered as part of Papua New Guinea's culture which many Papua New Guineans accept.

Contents

Introduction

Overview of Papua New Guinea Political system and women’s citizenship status

Women’s Political Status and Participation in a Patriarchy Society

Challenges faced by women in Papua New Guinea’s Democracy

Women’s Political status and Participation in the Global Era

Rights, Feminism and Women’s Political Participation

Conclusion

Introduction

Women in Papua New Guinea are constitutionally recognised as the countries citizens and should have equal citizenship status as men. However, Papua New Guinea’s ‘big man’ culture founded upon Patriarchy beliefs and values often undermined women’s status and participation in the country’s political arena. Therefore, this literature review examines the women’s political status in the country and the extent of women’s participation in the country’s political system. The first section provides the general overview of Papua New Guinea’s political system and women’s citizenship status. The second section discusses Papua New Guinea’s patriarchy culture, and how it affects women’s political status in country’s patrilineal and matrilineal societies. The third section explain some of the challenges faced by the women in Papua New Guinea’s democratic system of government. It also outlines the constitutional citizenship status; the rights of women as enshrine in the constitution and the challenges women faced in exercising these rights. The next section explains how the introduction of globalise ideologies promote equality and participation of women in the political arena, and the final section discusses the women’s rights and the feminist movements that advocate on these rights and equal women participation in politics. It also presents the statistics of women’s active participation at the national level and the current women’s political status in Papua New Guinea. It finally concludes with the likely outcome of feminist continuous advocacy on women’s participation in Papua New Guinea’s political arena.

Overview of Papua New Guinea Political system and women’s citizenship status

Papua New Guinea is the Eastern side of the second largest island in the world, the island of New Guinea. This island was occupied by the Melanesian people and often boast about its 800 different cultures and languages which the occupants of the island have practised for over thousands of years. The traditional style of living was challenged in late 1800’s when the British and the Germans landed on the island and declare it as their colony (Waiko, 1992). The colonisation of the island of New Guinea was the first phase in the political development that have shaped the island into a country that is called Papua New Guinea. The Germens handed their colonised territory to the British after they were defeated in world war one and British later handed the ‘Territory of Papua and New Guinea’ to Australia which spread its influence directly across the Territory until 1975 when the Territory was declared as an independent state of Papua New Guinea.

When Papua New Guinea gain its independence, most of its political (Westminster) and legal system were adapted from Australia and United Kingdom. To be an active participant in the Papua New Guinea political system, the person must be a Papua New Guinea’s citizen (Papua New Guinea Government, 1975). The person can become a citizen by either birth (automatic citizen) or through naturalisation (naturalised citizen) following the processes as stated in the Papua New Guinea’s constitution (p. 66 -67). In this context, any person that is born in Papua New Guinea that has either one or both parents from Papua New Guinea automatically becomes a Papua New Guinea’s citizen. That means they have legal rights and responsibilities just like any other Papua New Guinea’s citizens. However, this is not the case of being a woman in Papua New Guinea. Women in Papua New Guinea, even though they are legally reorganised as Papua New Guineas citizens and having the right to exercise their freedom just like any other citizens in the country, their legal rights and political status are often suppressed by the Papua New Guinea’s Melanesian culture which have been constructed over thousands of years.

Women’s Political Status and Participation in a Patriarchy Society

Papua New Guinea’s Melanesian culture was built upon Patriarchy. According to Christ (2016), patriarchy is often defined as male dominance (p. 215). In traditional Papua New Guinea societies before the European contact, tribal warfare between warring tribes were common. It was the males (men) who defended the tribe, specifically women and children against the invading tribes. In return from their protection, the women and children submit to their authority and consider fathers as the head of the family. This system has evolved over thousands of years and eventually inbuilt into the societies social, political and economical structure which got itself rooted in almost all Melanesian sub-cultures. However, the ideology of Patriarchy has taken a new twist. Instead of protecting the women, the males take advantage of the system and often treat women as inferior beings. Women are often being abused and supressed from participating especially in the societies’ political activities. The patriarchy system has now developed into a system that the male dominance is not out of love and respect but out of treat and violence towards women (p. 216). It is a system controlled by powerful men, the man who can use treat or other form of violence to supress women (p.216). It evolves around the idea that the world is tough and in order to survive one has to be tough physically to survive. The idea is often considered as primitive as it does not consider the feelings of the other people in the society; however, because it is well developed and constructed over the years, it is considered as part of Papua New Guinea’s culture which many Papua New Guineans accepted.

Acceptance of patriarchy as part of Papua New Guinea’s culture has resulted in many Papua New Guineans still practising it. Every day in Papua New Guineas’ societies women are subject to physical abuse. Their citizenship status and the ability to access legal assistance are often limited by Papua New Guinea’s patriarchy beliefs and values constructed over the years. Facio (2013) agree that patriarchy is a system that distributed power unequal between men and women to detriment women (p.1). In cases such as faced by Papua New Guinea’s women are worsen by the Patriarchy beliefs of male as the head of the family and often extended his powers to the distant relatives in the same lineage (p.1). This limits the chances of women to seek help and support when suppressed by the males in the same patriarchy linage or the society. The patriarchy system practised in Papua New Guinea is not just the patriarchy construction of muscularity and femininity, it is also the difference between the freedom and the subjection (p.1). It has developed into a system that women are considered as a second-class citizen that will not be easily eradicated. The patriarchy system of governance is very strong and more male dominant in Papua New Guineas patrilineal societies than in matrilineal societies. Even though women in matrilineal societies enjoy some social-political status in Papua New Guinea, it only covers the small population and the freedom women has is not that as the ones enjoyed by the women in matriarchal societies.

Papua New Guinea’s matrilineal societies treated women better. But women do not have equal status like men compared to the women in matriarchal societies? McGee (2015) define matriarchy as mother being the head of the family (p.1). It can also be defined as a community or society governed by women (p.1). There are three types of characteristics that define matriarchal systems, firstly decedents are trace trough women lineage, secondly, women make larger contributions to decision making and finally the myths of women rulers as in ancient kingdoms (p.1). However, in Papua New Guinea the social and political system is matrilineal which women do not exercise their powers like the women in the matriarchal societies. For example, in Papua New Guinea’s matrilineal societies women are not the head of the house. It is the father who is the head of the house and the chiefs (males) are the most important people in the community and in decision making. But the land inheritance and the rights to access other properties are pass over to the women. This gave some status to women so that their views and ideas are often entertained by the chiefs in decision making. Women leaders in the community are also allowed to participate in some important tribal meetings, but it is the chiefs who make the final decisions. In this context, the women in Papua New Guinea matrilineal societies are treated better and have some political status compared to patrilineal societies but not as equal status as men compared to women in matriarchal societies.

In Papua New Guinea matrilineal societies even though females’ views are entertained, males still dominate the social and the political status in the society. Even though the land and the property are past down thorough matrilineal lines, the system of governance is still patriarchy. It means that men still retain the position of power and authority within the kin group (Lowes, 2018, p.1). But because the land and other cultural properties are owned by the female, she still has a very strong link to her family maintaining here position among here consanguineal kin groups. However, in the patrilineal societies, the wife is effectively incorporated into her husband’s lineage because she has no relevance to here kin groups in determining the land and other cultural inheritance (p.2). This often reduce here ability to relay on her own kinship group in case of separation (divorce) or conflict. Men in the patrilineal societies often take advantage of this and treat women as a person of a low status in the community (p.2). Women do not have any option but to submit to her husband and the husband’s relatives because if she experiences problems or if separated from her husband, she cannot seek help from her consanguineal linage or return to her family. That means if divorced, she will become landless (homeless) subjecting herself to stigmatisation and discrimination. Therefore, women in most parts of Papua New Guinea continue to remain salient even though they are considered as second-class citizens.

Unlike Papua New Guinea patrilineal societies, women in matrilineal societies have greater support from their kin. For example, the mother’s brother has the responsibility to train his sisters son to become a man (p.8). He also provides other help and support towards his sister in maintaining her status in the community. This is because even though he has the political power and authority over his sister just like men in the patrilineal society, his linage will be traced through his sisters’ children (p.8). Because women in the matrilineal societies are supported by their kin and have the control over the land, which is the main asset and highly valued in the Melanesian societies, their socio-political status in the community are often respected. Furthermore, it is the women who are responsible for securing, maintaining and making any other decisions that relates to the land (Koian n.d, p. 27). Because the land is communally owned, her decision is very crucial for the clan’s survival (p.27). Therefore, she is very much respected compared to women in the patrilineal societies. But not all women in Papua New Guinea’s matrilineal societies enjoy the same privilege and status in relation to land ownership. In some societies (e.g. Bougainville), even women own the land, their decisions have to be conveyed through their brothers or uncles who represents them in the meetings (p.28). Women are not allowed to attend those meetings or speak in public (p.28). Even though this limits the women’s status in the community, it is better than in the patrilineal societies where women can only involve in the decision making by secretly influencing her husband which she got the power to, but not directly involved in any decision making nor openly in the public. This system was practised for over thousands of years until the arrival and colonisation of the island by the Europeans.

Challenges faced by women in Papua New Guinea’s Democracy

The colonisation of the island by the British and the Germans in 1880’s has seen a new transformation in the islands political system that influence women’s citizenship status. However, this change does not occur overnight. It was until 1975 when Papua New Guinea formally reorganised women as they should have equal rights and citizenship status as men. This legal status of women being equal to men and should have equal rights was introduced when Papua New Guinea constitution came into effect in 1975 (Pacific Island Legal Institute 2019; Papua New Guinea Government, 1975). That was when Papua New Guinea gain its independence from Australia and was recognise as a sovereign nation.

The birth of a new nation has constitutionally redefined the women’s citizenship status. The constitution reorganised every woman who has a at least two generations of ancestry in Papua New Guinea before the country become independent and has not hold a foreign passport as automatic citizens (Papua New Guinea Government, 1975, p. 66). The constitution also gave them the power to land ownership even if they are from patrilineal societies. They also have that freedom to exercise their civil, social and political rights. Women are now considered as a full member of the society gaining a full social, economical and political citizenship status unlike in the traditional societies (Paz, 2014, p. 1). The new definition of citizenship is more like a set of legal, economic, social and political practise that enable women to be a competent member in the society (p.2). They can participate in any given activities without fear of intermediation from the males or other citizens who still holds the Melanesian patriarchy beliefs and values. They are equal to males in this constitutional era. However, this was in theory. Practically women still struggle to compete in the society. Even though legally they are reorganised as citizens and should have equal rights and privileges as their male counterparts, the Melanesian patriarchy culture, beliefs and values that was deeply rooted in the society continue to prevent women from exercising their rights and privileges. This continue to undermine women’s citizenship status limiting their access to social, political and economic participation in the community.

In addition, the democratic system of government that Papua New Guinea adopted from Australia during independence is fragile and cannot be effectively implemented in a country which its culture and tradition is founded on patriarchism for thousands of years. The democratic system of government Papua New Guinea adapted from Australia is supposed to be a system that the power and the civic responsibilities of all adult citizens should be exercise directly or indirectly through its elected representative (Democracy in Brief, 2017, p.3; Papua New Guinea Government, 1975). The constitution guides and direct all the citizens and the elected representatives on how these powers and responsibilities should be practised. That democracy is supposed to be the institution of freedom (Democracy in Brief, 2017, p.1). It should protect basic human right like the freedom of speech, religion; and equal participation in all citizens economic and political life in the society as described by the constitution (p.3). The free and fair elections should be open to all citizens that are of the voting age to participate freely without being intimidate by any candidate or political parties (p.3). The state and its institution have the responsibility to protect these citizens rights. The constitution should be the supreme guide. In other words, democracy rest upon the principal that the government exist to serve the interest of every single person who is the citizen of that democratic state (p.7). These democratic ideas and interest are guided by constitution.

However, Papua New Guinea faces many challenges in implementing its democratic system of government. This often disadvantage the women population. Even though elections in Papua New Guinea were very competitive showing signs of democratic elections, it is not free and fair to all voting age population as stated in the constitution. Women voters are often intimidated by the contesting candidates and their political parties. Politics in Papua New Guinea is simply competing for power, prestige and status in the community as shaped by patriarchy, the Melanesian big men system. Most of the legal and moral principles that forms the basis of democracy are often ignored (0’Donnel 1999, p 18). Because the state and its institutions are weak, the intending candidates often take advantage of this weakness to threaten and intimidate the women population during voting. Females feminine characteristics further restrict the women to contest against the males that have masculine characteristics in a very tough and competitive environment. This often-restricted women to practise their political rights as Papua New Guinea citizens.

Papua New Guinea’s cultural heterogeneity pose another major challenge for the government to deal with this issue. Even though all Papua New Guinea’s societies generally practise Melanesian culture, each tribe or clan have its own sub-political culture that have been practised over the centuries (Sepoe 2006, p.399). This means that to address the issues of women’s political participation at the national level, the state has to address the issues of each tribe or clan which are divided politically at the community level. This political division of the tribes or clan at the community level is often considered as a major factor contributing to the high level of corrupt activities at the national level that significantly contributes towards the lack of women participation in the country’s political system (p. 400). Women are further subject to violence and harassment because of this political division at the community level. This has compromised free and fair elections especially in the Papua New Guinea highlands leaving a very little room for women to exercise their political rights (p. 400). For the women to fully participate as the full political citizens of Papua New Guinea, the government has to unify these different clans and tribes which fragmented the society.

Division amongst the tribal societies entwined with Papua New Guinea’s patriarchy culture continue to supress women’s citizenship status. Elections are held under the gun point (p.401). Female candidates who cannot arrange or afford such practises are consider as weak in the patriarchy societies attracting less voters and supporters. Furthermore, female contestants are often criticise based on the society’s construction of their feminine characteristics. This makes the leadership choice gender based and discriminatory (p. 403). Many Papua New Guinean’s are quick to accept the idea that females are weak because of the gender and patriarchy view that have been constructed by the society over the centuries. For example, in 2002 national election, women candidates were described as “they cannot climb a pandanis or a coconut tree”, a Papua New Guinea metaphor that describe the societies view towards women that have been constructed over the years (p. 403). The metaphor can be interpreted as women are not allowed to stand for elections according to Melanesian big man culture, or the general perception of the society that the women are weak and cannot win the general election and even if they win, they cannot participate effectively in the decision making in a male dominated political arena (p. 403). Such perception and criticism of women continue to marginalise women in politics undermining their citizenship status. For the women to become effectively involve in the politics, the country should improve its political and law enforcing institutions. Furthermore, more awareness about the importance of the women participation in the political and economical system should be made known to society. Only then, the society will accept the idea of women leaders in the community, provincial and national level.

Women’s Political status and Participation in the Global Era

Even though women in Papua New Guinea face the tough political conditions, there are women who manage to break through the male dominated society in exercising their political rights that at least improve the women’s citizenship status in the country. In addition, the Melanesian big men system is not that aggressive as it sounds. Originally, the Big men system is simply a skilful conduct of males displaying wealth of knowledge and wisdom in a more respectful manner to gain access to resources that is within or outside their community (Milli 2013, p. 6). The accumulation of wealth earned the person the ‘big-man’ status. In return, the ‘big-men’ receives praise and respect from the society. In this system in some societies, females are also involved in helping their brothers or husbands and are respected alongside their husband and brothers (p.6). It is the misunderstanding of the purpose of the big men system accompanied by greed and selfishness entwined with the western introduced capitalist ideas that resulted in violence and suppression of female population in the modern politics. Furthermore, in metrilinal societies, women do participate in decision making especially in relation to land issues. This means that in traditional Melanesian (matrilineal and patrilineal) societies, women were valued and do have some status but not as equal to men. In addition, the right to exercise this status varies within each clan or tribe.

These rights including the women’s constitutional rights were empowered to equalise the male’s citizenship status when the globalisation ideology was introduced in Papua New Guinea. The introduction of globalisation ideology has marked a new era in the development of race towards achieving equal rights and citizenship status for the women (Chaturvedi 2012, p 1). It opens Papua New Guinea to the outside world exposing the society to the new set of cultural beliefs and values. Even though the state of Papua New Guinea has the power and still exercise its authority within its political boundaries, the international influence and ideas quickly spread throughout the nation (p.5). The acceptance of the new ideas, beliefs and values by the Papua New Guineans without much resistances quickly fuel the demand for goods and services that promoted this new culture that associate itself with freedom of equality and participation by all individuals regardless of race, gender or religion. These resulted in the government to allow international business and other social and political organisations to operate within the country to provide these goods and services to meet its citizens demand (Bertucci & Alberti, 2003). Some international business and political organisations take advantage of these process and further try to either persuade or manipulate Papua New Guineans to accept their beliefs and values which is not popular in Papua New Guinea culture. Some of those beliefs and values are healthy and often contribute significantly to the women citizenship status. Enforcement of gender rights and equal women participation by United Nation through UN Women in Papua New Guinea is an example of these organisation and its beliefs and values that have positive effect on women’s’ citizenship status in the country.

Even though persuasive and manipulative powers of the international businesses and political organisation often undermine the country’s culture and state sovereignty, the free flow of information and rapid technological progress which is fostered by globalisation (Chaturvedi, 2012, p 1).) attract Papua New Guinea to allow them to operate within the country which they create employment opportunities and better living standard for its citizens. This contributes to the country’s economic growth which means Papua New Guinea cannot resist being part of this globalised economy and its ideas (p.1). But this often place the state under enormous pressure when the international ides conflict with the state and its citizens interest.

In most cases, it is Papua New Guinea as a developing country and its citizens beliefs and values that must be compromise with the global ideologies exerted by the International business and political organisations having their origin in the western or more advance societies (Stevenson 1997, p. 50). For example, the global community (i.e. United Nation through Australia) advocates on the gender equity which is in contrast with Papua New Guinea’s patriarchy culture. This means the traditional beliefs and values of patriarchism practised by Papua New Guineans society has to be changed or adjusted to accept the introduced idea of gender equity and equality in women’s’ participation in any political activities at all levels, both nationally and internationally. This is because the practise of male superiority ideology derived from the traditional Patriarchy culture that shapes the country’s social and political activities are considered inappropriate by the international community specifically countries Papua New Guinea have a good diplomatic relationship with.

In addition, Papua New Guinea being part of the global community means that whatever happens around the globe will still have impact on the country. When Papua New Guinea and other countries ‘citizens migrate within or across international boundaries, they adjust their cultures to a more global culture (especially western culture) that is dominant and generally excepted by almost all international citizens (Stevenson, 1997). It makes citizenship and internationally accepted beliefs and values to become more homogeneous (p. 41). This also means that Papua New Guinea as a state, to be part of the political and global economy, the state must reconsider their relationship with its citizens and their local culture, the relationship with other countries and the flow of people between these different countries. The culture of Papua New Guinea must be in line with the accepted cosmopolitan homogeneous culture for the country to be part of this global society (p. 43 – 50). This often pressurised the state not only about the protection of the interest of members within the state boundaries but also the interest of its citizens that are abroad in different states as well as protecting the relationship between Papua New Guinea and the other countries. This often cause the state to accept the global ideas.

Rights, Feminism and Women’s Political Participation

However, there are some conservative individuals and groups within Papua New Guinea that often resist the international influence, beliefs and values in Papua New Guinea. For examples, some men still hold the patriarchy beliefs and values and restrict the women’s freedom of participation in politics and other related activities. Some take it to an extreme of physically abusing women who want to exercise their freedom. This has seen the introduction and the advocacy of human rights in Papua New Guinea as an important feature of globalisation because the globalisation and human rights (women’s equality) are western ideology introduced to Papua New Guinea by the dominating powers (Howard, 1998), in this context, it is to protect women in this global era.

According to Nasha (2009), human rights draw back to the historical (Greek) perspective where people are considered as born equal and with some rights (p. 1608). Later to clarify that perception and make it practical, they point out that it refers to men which eventually leads to the idea of rights and citizenship (p.1608). Therefore, if all people are born with some form of rights and are of equal status as citizens as perceive in the early stages of rights development, then human rights should be the foundation of all rights in the era of globalisation despite the state boarders (p.1609). This is simply because all rights are introduced to protect people, therefore it should cover everyone regardless of gender, age, religion or ethnicity.

Human rights should be the foundation of all rights because civil, political and social rights are introduced to protect people. All these rights that are currently promoted by Papua New Guinea and other international political organisations to protect the citizenships from harm and maltreatment are all part of Human rights (pp 1067 - 1068). All these rights considered as human rights and are very important to the disadvantage individuals and groups. Not only that, social rights such as right to health and education which is also a basic human right is very important to everyone including the advantage and the disadvantage population (Hunt, 2017, p.10). In the global world where the civil and political rights are restricted to state boundaries in the context of state and citizenship, the basic human rights supersede as it is not limited to a certain state, individuals or citizens but covers everyone within state and across transnational boundaries (p. 10). It is used to shape policies and practise and improve people’s lives in promoting equity, equality and justice (p.8-10). Therefore, the introduction, advocacy and enforcement of these basic human rights is necessary to protect women and improve their status in Papua New Guinea. However, international organisations such as United Nation which promote human rights cannot directly enforce human rights in each country. This often resulted in some countries including Papua New Guinea not enforcing the basic human rights that protect women in social, economic and political inequalities even though it is a signatory to the United Nation human rights convention. This has seen the growth of feminist voice alongside with other international organisations to protect, support and make sure each country enforces basic human rights; to be specific, women’s rights.

Feminism is of the ideology that the women should have equal rights, privileges and opportunity as men. Lister (2012) point out that, it is believed from the feminist perspective that citizenship has been a male dominated in theory and practise (p. 372). Historically, citizenship often referred to men. Later, even though women were taken into consideration and were given citizenship rights, the construction of gender had deeply rooted itself in peoples mined. This has resulted in unfair treatment towards women as citizens in liberal democratic societies like Papua New Guinea where women deserve fairness in social, economical and political participation. Therefore, feminists decided to address citizenship using three different approaches specifically, gender neutralisation (equality), gender differentiation (sex/gender) and gender pluralism (members of multiple group) (377). To achieve this will require both the state and all citizens to work together. This include capturing it into plans, policies and in practise.

Traditionally, in Melanesian societies especially patrilineal societies, women have very little rights almost to none. Fortunately, Lister (2012) explain feminist theories has stripped away this veil (p. 372). This has given hope to women to become equal and actively participate in the state that is considered as male dominated societies. However, more is needed to be done for the women to achieve full citizenship status in the context of their rights and responsibilities in the modern perspective. Far worse, people (gays) who gendered themselves as women are often excluded as citizens in the Melanesian societies which also have a very strong Christian beliefs and values. Even males who advocate on women’s rights are often considered as inferior derived from the big men mentality. But with the impact of globalisation and its ideologies including feminist voice, these has change. The change in a way that people relies that Melanesian societies (e.g. Papua New Guinea) are not a small isolated world but a part of a large global society. In order to participate in the global economy or any political activities, they must become cosmopolitan citizens either by physically moving across international boards or by participating in international activities and events even though they are still within the state boundaries.

Far more the gender theorists have added pressure on the state to change its policies to accommodate women and girls and further implement the existing policies. In addition, the state law enforcing bodies should pay a closer attention in protecting women and girls in exercising their rights in the male dominated society which was shaped by patriarchy over thousands of years. Dean (2012) ague that it is the state that is the key actors in the construction of gender relationship (p. 285). These has resulted in Melanesian states to adjusting its policies. This has seen an increase in the participation of women in male dominated jobs such as public security (police and army) and higher education. This means that their rights to be a citizen have been recognised by the state. That means they belong to the society which is the main idea tied to the notion of nation state and citizenship. However, women are still struggling to be equally represented in the political arena.

Since independence, the representation of women in the politics have been very low. Even though there are laws to protect rights and freedom of women Papua New Guinea still have the highest inequality rate in the world, ranking 134 out of 145 countries in the 2012 gender inequality index (Fario 2014, p.8). It also has the lowest rate (about 2% in average) of female’s members in the parliament since independence (p.8). This represent 0.9 percent of Papua New Guinea’s female population (Milli, 2013, p.3). The struggle of feminists in the area of politics is real. During the era of independence (1975), there was only one woman in the parliament out of 108 members (Fario 2014, p. 44-45). The highest number of women elected in the national parliament was in 1977 and 2012 with 3 women representatives out of 109 members in each election (p. 44). All the other elections were either 0 (including recent, 2015 election) or 1 successfully women candidate except 1997 general election which has two successful women candidates (p. 44). This is the general trend of women’s successful political participation in the 9 national elections Papua New Guinea has since Independence. Despite the low number of successful women candidates, the number of women interested in entering the national politics continue to increase. This has seen the gradual increase of the intending women candidates from 10 in 1977 to 135 in 2012 (p. 55). However, many fall short of gaining public support in securing the seats in the national parliament. Therefore, the males continue to dominate the national politics.

In the national and provincial levels, the women perform better in the matrilineal societies and other provinces where Papua New Guinea’s patriarchy culture is not that very strong. For example, Josephina Abaja, a longest serving women parliamentarian at the national level is from Miline Bay Province, a matrilineal society (Milli 2013, p.10). All the others are from the provinces where the big-man system is not that strong except Julie Soso who is from the highlands region (p.10). However, Julie Soso’s term in the parliament was very short (p.10). Similar trend was discovered at the provincial level. For example, Autonomous region of Bougainville where women are respected have the highest (10 percent) number of women representatives at the provincial assembly compare to other provinces in Papua New Guinea (Baker 2015, p.1). Women at the local level have better women participation in all provinces compare to the other levels. This is the only level that reorganised women’s political rights by allocating 10 percent of the seats to the women’s representatives. Allocating of women’s seat does not mean women are equally competitive as men. It is because of the feminist voice advocating on the recognition of the women’s rights and their citizen status in the community that resulted in securing the 10 percent of the seats for the females in the local level. The feminist voice has great influence in the urban setting than in the rural areas. Politics at the local level in the rural areas which contain about 80 percent of the country’s population is still male dominated. It is because of this reason that it affects the women’s political status and participation in the provincial and the national levels.

The effect of male dominance in the local politics can be felt during the national elections. This is because the candidates’ base votes (in limited preferential voting system) and support in the national elections are received from the clan and the tribe which is at the local (village) level specifically from their kinsmen who still maintain the patriarchy beliefs and values. From there, the candidates move out into other areas to induce the potential voters especially by money and wealth simply in a form of bribery (Milli 2013, p. 8). This is in contrast with the western democracy which the voters vote along the party policies and consanguineal ties does not determine election outcomes. Therefore, for women to increase their political influence and status in Papua New Guinea at the national level, firstly they must be wealthy and have enough support from either their affinal or consanguineal kinsmen (p.32). Secondly, they must be good strategic planners because the country’s politics is very competitive (p.33). And lastly, they must have enough financial capital because campaigns in Papua New Guinea are very expensive and only people with enough financial capital can contests the national elections (p.33). Because the Melanesian big men system is centred around these characteristics, women have to put up with it. The eight women who have won Papua New Guinea’s past elections display these attributes to be successful.

Even though women try to compete in the national election, they fail to secure the parliamentary seats like the other 8 successful candidates in the previous elections. Therefore, to reorganise the political rights of the women and elevated their political status, wome’s reserve seat bill was presented to the parliament by a lone women parliamentarian in 2011 as an affirmative avenue for the women’s representation in the national level (Kaiku 2011, p.3). Even though the constitution allow for the allocation of the reserve seat to the women in the national parliament, the reserve seat bill failed to gain most of the support from the mail dominated parliament and was withdrawn (p.4). As a result, Papua New Guinea’s national parliament still lacks the women’s voice.

Still today, the feminist movements are still advocating on the women’s rights and the recognition of their political status in the National level. They argue that women as an invisible actors and mere statistics is unhealthy for the country’s democracy (p.6). Women as nurturers of human lives which is often displayed in the society is the quality the country need in decision making at the national level (p.6). They can use these characteristics to shape the policies and practise at the national level to facilitate the countries development. They claim the world have become a better place when the women’s voices are heard and address (p. 4). In addition, women have contributed significantly towards the country’s development in a form of unskilled labours and the performance of household duties (indirect contribution) to the duties of top managerial positions in business and other related organisations that contributes directly to the country’s economy. Despite women as effective contribution and effort to develop the country, women are still marginalised and faced issues such HIV/Aids, high maternal rate and physical and sexual abuses (p. 4 -6). It is believed that these problems will be minimise if women have their voice in the parliament to advocate on their political rights. With globalisation and western influence, the rise of feminism and fading away of Melanesian patriarchy culture, women still believe that one day, they will have equal citizenship status in Papua New Guinea political arena.

Conclusion

Papua New Guinea’s traditional political system was built upon Patriarchism. The introduction of democracy after country’s independence legally allows for the equal participation of both male and females in the political arena. However, the diffusion of patriarchy beliefs and values into the country’s democracy continue to pose challenges for the women in the country. These challenges affect women in patrilineal societies more than the matrilineal societies. But with the introduction of global ideologies that promote gender equality and participation, it slowly erodes the Papua New Guinea’s patriarchy beliefs and values. In addition, the advocacy by the feminist organisation on recognising and implementing women’s rights has pressurised the state to provide avenue for the women to be active political participants at the national level. There are several women who manage to participate at the national level however the percentage is still very low. There are encouraging signs towards the achievement of gender equality in Papua New Guinea’s politics however at current, women voice is still lacking at the national level.

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• Universidad: University of Auckland
• Calificación: 6.0
• Autor: Norris Wangina (Autor)
• Año de publicación: 2021
• Páginas: 18
• No. de catálogo: V1118531
• ISBN (Ebook): 9783346488114
• ISBN (Libro): 9783346488121
• Idioma: Inglés
• Etiqueta: female, representation, politics, papua, guinea, what