Imagine a world teetering on the edge of chaos, where sovereign nations, each fiercely protective of its own interests, navigate a complex web of alliances and rivalries. This is the arena of international relations, where the pursuit of order and justice clashes with the harsh realities of power politics. Delve into the intricate framework of the International Society theory, a compelling perspective that seeks to bridge the gap between idealism and realism in understanding global affairs. Explore how states, despite operating in an anarchical system without a world government, forge a society bound by shared rules, institutions, and a desire for mutual preservation. Uncover the crucial elements that underpin international order: the delicate Balance of Power, the aspirational principles of Human Rights, the nuanced art of Diplomacy, the influential role of Great Powers, and even the paradoxical function of War as a means to achieve stability. Discover how these elements interact to shape the behavior of nations and the dynamics of the global landscape. Through insightful analysis and real-world examples, such as the "Roadmap" to peace in the Middle East and the constitution of the European Union, gain a deeper appreciation for the challenges and opportunities inherent in building a more peaceful and just world. Question the limitations of the theory, considering factors such as economics and other influences to show areas for improvement and extensions of the original framework to improve its applicability to today's world. This thought-provoking exploration offers a comprehensive understanding of the forces at play in international relations, providing valuable insights for anyone seeking to navigate the complexities of our interconnected world and the theory and practice of international relations, international security, foreign policy, and global governance, including the roles of diplomacy, international law, and international organizations in shaping state behavior and promoting peace and stability. It is a guide to understanding conflict, cooperation, and the ongoing quest for a more ordered and equitable global society.
I. Introduction: International Relations Theories
Concerning the analysis of international politics and international relations there are many possibilities that all show different views to the events in these fields. Several methods explain in different ways acts between states like conflicts, wars, agreements and treaties. During an analysis you use one of these methods like glasses that you must not change because the achieved explanation would be unclear.
The method of the Political Realism for example puts distrust, politics of power, military security and war in the foreground. The method of the Liberalism is very contrary to this theory: Liberalism, also called Utopic Idealism, has the opinion that states act in the interest of peace and that is why they cooperate, have diplomatic relations and no interests of being at war. These are two very different kinds of procedure explaining the reasons of state acting.
The International Society is the third way how to describe events in the world of politics. It is a kind of combination between Realism and Liberalism because there are realistic elements like “Balance of Power”, “Great Powers” and “War” and also elements of the Liberalism like “Diplomacy” and the “Human Rights”.[1]The main aim of the International Society is order and justice in the world. In the following text, this theory will be presented and later explained by two recent examples of events in world politics.
II. The International Society
1. Internal and external sovereignty
The founder of the theory of the International Society is Hedley Bull. In his essay “Anarchical Society”[2]he writes down the basics about the International Society that tries to reconcile Realism and Liberalism and to make a suggestion how to achieve peace in the world permanently. Bull moves himself on the level of systems, the third image (beside the level of states as second and the level of individuals as first image) named by Kenneth Waltz[3]as representative of the theory of Neorealism. The main actors in the Anarchical Society are sovereign states and their relations.
Starting point of Bull’s thoughts is the existence of politically independent Gemeinwesen, namely states, who are situated in an anarchical condition in the world because there is no world government. On the one hand, states have a so called “internal sovereignty” over their population on their own territory (=internal control). On the other hand, states exert “external sovereignty”, meaning independence of external power (s. Bull, p.31). The status of independence differs from state to state.
2. International System and International Society
In spite of the present of an anarchical condition, there is a kind of order because nearly all sovereign states have built International Systems and some of them International Societies (that gives this International Relations Theory its name) . The International System is a “system of states” and develops, when states have an adequate amount of contact to influence themselves. If then these states have common interests and values, the International System forms into the International Society, also called “society of states”. The members in the International Society are linked by common rules and institutions, they accept certain limitations concerning mutual acts of violence, respect their right of independence and cooperate in various institutions like the Human Rights, Diplomacy, rules and conventions in case of War and other general international organizations (s. Bull, p.32). So the International Society is based on the International System, i.e. every society of states is a system of states but a system of states does not need to be a society of states obviously.
3. International order
Order is an important measure that maintains the main aim of the International Society, the independence of all states. The absence of a world government does not mean a totally international anarchy, how the philosopher Thomas Hobbes thought. Hobbes transferred the distrust between men and the so resulted anarchical condition on the level of the states. The Realist Hans Morgenthau took up the analogy of men and states in his essay “Macht und Frieden”[4](“Power and Peace”) and came to the result, that all states live in mutual distrust and need weapons for their self-defensive. According to the Realism, Bull agrees only at this point with Hobbes, that states have a permanent readiness to war. With their constantly ready-to-hit army, states are always prepared for an attack, although they are living in peace. In general, Bull does not agree with this comparison of men and states. They are similar, but states are less vulnerable than men, because it is nearly impossible to extinguish a whole state, while it is easy to kill a man.
Five institutions are responsible for the maintaining of the international order: the Balance of Power, the Human Rights, Diplomacy, The Great Powers and War.
3.1. The Balance of Power
The expression Balance of Power means that no state may dominate in the level of system; power must be distributed equally. So this institution has three functions: first, the protection against a subjection of the states under a world state. Second, the existence of a local Balance of Power in a region protects independent states against a local dominant power, which could absorb them. And finally third, general and local Balances of Power built the assumption for regimes and other international institutions like for example the Human Rights (s. Bull, p.38). Common interests and values, which develop special bodies of rules and regulations, contribute an important part for the existence of the Balance of Power.
3.2. The Human Rights
The second important element of an international order are the already mentioned Human Rights, which support states in their mutual relations. This complex of rules obliges all actors legal (=juristisch?) and fixes the thought of a society of sovereign states as highest normative principle (s. Bull, p.39). With their function of order and their principle of agreement and cooperation between states the Human Rights are part of the Liberalism. Because there are special rules every member must follow, the international order can be better preserved.
3.3 The Diplomacy
Diplomacy is part of the Liberalism, too. In contrary interests, it is the first way to solve problems peacefully. According to Bull, diplomacy relieves the communication between the leaders of states and other actors in world politics. Condition for this function is the agreement, that all diplomats are immune. Only this immunity can guarantee the diplomats won’t be killed or gewaltsam festgehalten by any partie. Moreover, diplomacy makes sure the negotiations of agreements, which just come about, when there are common interests. A third function according to Bull is the collecting of news and information about foreign states. Countries must know the interests and situations of other countries, if they want to deal with them. Another point is keeping down possible tensions between states and, of course, diplomacy is a symbol for the existence of a society of states. A diplomat is not only a representative of his country and its culture, he is also the personification of the existence of rules and international institutions (s. Bull, p.44/45).
3.4. The Great Powers
The fourth factor of the international order is the special role of the so called Great Powers, which remember of the Realism. Great Powers like the United States of America are not only characterized by military or economical power, they also have special rights and tensions, for example in matters of peace and security. So they have a special responsibility in the world. They can use their mutual relations for maintaining the order of the International System, like control crisis and prevent (world) wars. And they can use their own superiority to protect the International Society. In this way, with the possibility to vote and so to block resolutions, the United Nations gave a special role to the permanent members in the Security Council[5]to maintain international peace and security (s. Bull, p. 46).
3.5. The function of War
As the fifth element in the international order names Hedley Bull the realistic term War – what at first may be surprising. But Bull regards War as a particular measure for reaching peace and stability at the end. War is a general accepted pattern of behavior, which has two faces. On the one side, War is a sign for disorder in the International Society and on the other side, it is a way to eliminate problems, which could not be solved by another medium. War is legitimated, when the Human Rights must be defended. (However there is the question if the Human Rights are valid for every state and political actor or only for those, who had ratified them.) War is also legitimated for preserving the Balance of Power. So Bull regards the institution War as necessity – when other peaceful methods fail.
III. Examples for the International Society by events in world politics
The following execution will now show two recent examples how to use the theory of the International Society to explain events in world politics.
1. The “Roadmap” to peace in the Middle East
Under the auspices of the United States, European Union, United Nations and the Russian Federation there is developed a “Performance-Based Roadmap to a Permanent Two-State Solution to the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict”[6]. Main aim of this diplomatic cooperation, in which of course the Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon and the Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) Abu Mazen are involved, is a final and comprehensive settlement of this conflict, which began with the occupation of several areas in 1967 by Israel. A two-state solution will only be achieved through an end of violence and terrorism, when the Palestinian people have a leadership willing and able to build a practicing democracy based on tolerance and liberty, and through Israel’s readiness to do what is necessary for a democratic Palestinian state.[7]
In this Roadmap, Diplomacy is the most important element. Both parties, Israel and Palestine, must leave parts of their territory, influence and power and so they have to find a compromise, with which both sides agree and which is able to bring peace. At the end of the Roadmap there will be another constellation in this region, another Balance of Power. So the Arabic neighbor states must accept this solution, that helps to avoid War, too. All involved parties must accept special laws and institutions like the Human Rights. Finally this Roadmap can not be pushed through without the support of the Great Powers USA, UN, EU and Russia.
2. The constitution of the European Union
Since 16 months 28 european nations worked equal on a union of the continent after fifty years of division. Now, on Friday, the 13th of June 2003, the EU-convent of reforms came to the agreement of the first constitution for the united Europe, which organizes the cooperation between the soon 25 member states. A hauptamtlicher EU-President having the power over the majority decisions may take care of a faster and more efficient decision making. This is a democratic and solid basis for the united Europe that becomes bigger and bigger. The constitution also may make sure, that this big Europe will be able to act in the future, too. The chairman of this committee, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, described this agreement as “combination of idealism and innovation”[8].
In the European Union much factors of the International Society Theory play a role. There must be found a Balance of Power, so that the states can trust each other. The Human Rights may be accepted by every member of the EU. Communication and solving of problems are only possible with Diplomacy. Great Powers must find their role in this system and the role of War must be defined. Only in this way, there will be an international order, in which the member states can act and do not be afraid of anarchical conditions. The EU gives stability and mutual protection and security to the states, but the process of reaching mutual trust is not easy and still needs a long way.
IV. The International Society Theory also able for an extension
Compared with the Theory of Realism and Liberalism, the International Society gives a wide view over the reasons of events in world politics. It shows a good structure about components in international relations. There must be an order in the international system because without it, acting would not be possible. Hedley Bull shows the necessary elements of this order, but in my opinion, he neglects some facts like for example economy. He does not mention economy one time, although it is an important part of international relations. In present times, states are more and more dependent of international trades, of ex- and imports. By this interdependence there is one more possibility to influence states in their actings. Economic sanctions can be a midway between Diplomacy and War. When Diplomacy fails in a conflict, there is no need for War obviously. This is one point, which Bull totally ignores and where this theory is able for an extension.
[...]
[1] In the whole essay I will write institutional expressions like Balance of Power, the Great Powers, Diplomacy, the Human Rights and even War in capital letters. Firm stand expressions of Hedley Bull like “International System” and “International Society” will wrote in capitals, too
[2] Bull, Hedley. Die anarchische Gesellschaft. In: Kaiser/Schwarz. Weltpolitik – Strukturen, Akteure, Perspektiven. Bonn 1985. S.31-49
[3] Waltz, Kenneth. Theory of International Politics. Random House. New York: 1979. Kapitel 1-6
[4] Morgenthau, Hans. Macht und Frieden. Gütersloh 1963
[5] The five permanent members in the Security Council are the United Nations, the Russian Federation, the People’s Republic of China, France and the United Kingdom.
[6] www.state.gov/r/pa/ps/2003/20062pf.htm
[7] In three phases permanently peace may be created: In the first phase since May 2003 both parties may accept the existence of an Israeli and a Palestinian state; the PNA may have free elections and institutions, Israel may freeze all settlement activities. In the second phase since the end of 2003 an international conference may ratify a Palestinian Democratic Constitution and begin the foundation of an independent state, while in the third phase (2004-2005) a second international conference will decide the final status of the Palestinian state.
Frequently asked questions
What is the main topic of the International Relations Theories document?
The document analyzes international politics and relations through different theoretical lenses, primarily focusing on Political Realism, Liberalism, and the International Society theory.
What are the key differences between Political Realism and Liberalism?
Political Realism emphasizes distrust, power politics, military security, and war, while Liberalism focuses on cooperation, diplomacy, and the pursuit of peace.
What is the International Society theory?
The International Society theory, as proposed by Hedley Bull, is a middle ground between Realism and Liberalism. It acknowledges elements of both, such as the balance of power and diplomacy, and aims for order and justice in the world.
What are internal and external sovereignty according to the text?
Internal sovereignty refers to a state's control over its population within its territory, while external sovereignty refers to its independence from external powers.
What is the difference between an International System and an International Society?
An International System develops when states have sufficient contact to influence each other. It evolves into an International Society when these states share common interests and values, accept certain limitations on violence, and cooperate through institutions.
What are the five institutions responsible for maintaining international order according to Hedley Bull?
The five institutions are the Balance of Power, Human Rights, Diplomacy, Great Powers, and War.
How does the Balance of Power contribute to international order?
The Balance of Power prevents any single state from dominating the system, protects independent states against local dominant powers, and provides a foundation for international institutions and regimes.
What role do Human Rights play in the International Society?
Human Rights obligate all actors legally and reinforce the concept of a society of sovereign states as the highest normative principle, fostering agreement and cooperation.
What are the functions of Diplomacy?
Diplomacy facilitates communication between leaders, allows negotiations of agreements, gathers news and information about foreign states, reduces tensions, and symbolizes the existence of a society of states.
What is the special role of the Great Powers?
Great Powers, like the United States, have special rights and responsibilities, especially in matters of peace and security. They can maintain order through their relations, control crises, and protect the International Society.
How can War contribute to international order?
War, although seemingly contradictory, is seen as a last resort for achieving peace and stability when other methods fail. It is legitimized in defense of Human Rights or to preserve the Balance of Power.
What are the examples given of the International Society theory in action?
The document provides two examples: the "Roadmap" to peace in the Middle East and the constitution of the European Union.
How does the "Roadmap" to peace in the Middle East illustrate the International Society theory?
The "Roadmap" involves diplomacy, compromise, and the support of Great Powers to achieve a two-state solution, requiring all parties to respect laws and institutions like Human Rights.
How does the constitution of the European Union reflect the International Society theory?
The EU constitution requires a balance of power among member states, acceptance of Human Rights, diplomacy, and a defined role for Great Powers to establish international order and provide stability.
What is the main critique of the International Society theory presented in the document?
The document argues that Hedley Bull neglects the importance of economy in international relations, particularly international trade and economic interdependence, which can influence state actions.
Is there anything missing from the International Society theory according to the text?
The text suggests the theory could be extended to include the influence of economic factors, such as the use of economic sanctions as an alternative to diplomacy and war.
- Quote paper
- Michaela Holzer (Author), 2003, The English School / International Society, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/108039
