In the context of this work it is to be examined whether the role of the Scout is suitable as an indicator for guidance authority. This is considered to be confirmed if it can be shown that Scouting has a significant influence on the development of leadership competence, or rather imparts relevant competencies that enable Scouts to lead successfully. Therefore, the primary research question is derived from this: "Does Scouting influence personal leadership competence?"
As early as 2006, Handelsblatt wrote about "the managers from the campfire" and quoted the Swedish King Carl Gustaf as saying "Scouts teach leadership skills." A few years later, in April 2019, WirtschaftsWoche published a detailed article on the subject of soft skills entitled "Why scouts make good bosses." The author justifies this with a number of soft skills that a Scout acquires at a young age and during his training. These include decision-making skills, conversational skills, project management, group leadership, teamwork and leadership, and generally taking responsibility. These are all competencies that companies often impart to their employees through expensive training courses.
If this causality can be confirmed, it would be of great importance, especially for aptitude diagnostics, as it would provide a new indicator for leadership competence. While professional competence can still be demonstrated by relevant work experience in a resume, it becomes much more difficult in the area of personal, social and methodological competence.
It should also be taken into account that the demands placed on managers are constantly growing. The megatrends of globalization and digitization are increasingly changing these demands. Intercultural teams working together in different locations around the world are the norm rather than the exception these days. Changes are also taking place at ever shorter intervals due to increasing competition and growing complexity.
Through eleven expert interviews with experienced leaders and a retired federal president - who also have Scouting experience - and a qualitative content analysis, this study examines whether Scouting has an influence on personal leadership competence, which leadership competencies are influenced, and which Scouting elements have the greatest influence on leadership competence.
Table of contents
List of figures
List of abbreviations
List of tables
1 Introduction
1.1 Relevance of the topic
1.2 Objective
1.3 Delimitation
1.4 Structure of the work
1.5 Note by the author
2 Theoretical part
2.1 Leadership
2.1.1 Leadership versus management
2.1.2 Leadership success
2.2 Traditional leadership theories
2.2.1 Property theories
2.2.2 Behavioural theories
2.2.3 Situational leadership theories
2.3 Modern leadership theories
2.3.1 Emotional leadership
2.3.2 Transactional leadership
2.3.3 Transformational leadership
2.3.4 Leadership approaches
2.4 Leadership competence
2.4.1 Competence models
2.4.2 Elements of leadership competence
2.5 Scouts
2.5.1 Origin and basic elements of the Scout Movement
2.5.2 Scouts today - Vision and mission
2.5.3 Principles of Scouting Education in the DPSG
2.5.4 The age groups in the DPSG
2.5.5 Understanding of leadership and training in the DPSG
2.5.6 Influence of Scout education on leadership skills
3 Applied methodology
3.1 Expert interview
3.2 Structure Tree and Interview Guide
3.3 Pre-test and practical implementation
3.4 Selection criteria of the interview partners
3.5 Definition of the categories
4 Evaluation of the findings
4.1 Influence of Scouting on leadership competence
4.1.1 Influence of Scouting on Personal Competence
4.1.2 Influence of Scouting on Social Competence
4.1.3 Influence of Scouting on Methodological Competence
4.1.4 Influence of Scouting on Professional Competence
4.2 Scouting factors influencing leadership competence
4.2.1 Scouting methodology as an influencing factor
4.2.2 Characteristics of Scouting as an Influencing Factor
4.2.3 Woodbadge training as an influencing factor
4.3 Other influences due to Scouting
4.3.1 Influence of Scouting on career entry
4.3.2 Transfer of Scouting to the corporate world
5 Discussion
5.1 Interpretation of the results
5.2 Critical reflection on one's own approach
5.3 Discussion of the quality criteria
5.3.1 Reliability
5.3.2 Validity
5.3.3 Objectivity
5.4 Overall summary of content
5.5 Outlook and further procedure
5.5.1 Implication for practice
5.5.2 Implication for further research
6 Bibliography
List of figures
Figure 1: Comparison of managers and leaders
Figure 2: The framework model of leadership
Figure 3: Potential correlations of Scouting and Leadership competence
List of abbreviations
BdP Bund deutscher Pfadfinderinnen und Pfadfinder
BMPPD Bund Moslemischer Pfadfinder und Pfadfinderinnen
DPSG Deutsche Pfadfinderschaft Sankt Georg
FK Professional competence (dt: Fachkompetenz)
MC Methodological competence
NS National Socialism
NSO National Scout Organization
PC Personality competence
PSG Pfadfinderschaft Sankt Georg
rdp Ring Deutscher Pfadfinderverbände
SC Social competence
StaVo Stammesvorsitzende/-r (en: Tribal Chairperson)
VCP Verband Christlicher Pfadfinderinnen und Pfadfinder
WBC Woodbadge course
WOSM World Organization of the Scout Movement
List of tables
Table 1: Evaluation of influences on leadership competence and their influencing factors
Table 2: Evaluation of Scouting Influencing Factors on leadership competence
Table 3: Evaluation of other influences due to Scouting
1 Introduction
1.1 Relevance of the topic
As early as 2006, the Handelsblatt wrote about "the managers from the campfire" and quoted the Swedish King Carl Gustaf with the words "Scouts teach leadership skills"1. A few years later, in April 2019, WirtschaftsWoche published a detailed article on the topic of soft skills with the title "Why scouts become good bosses". In this article, the author describes in detail why, in his opinion, scouts are suitable candidates for leadership positions. He justifies this with a series of soft skills that a scout acquires at a young age and during his training. These include decision-making skills, conversation skills, project management, group leadership, teamwork and leadership, or generally taking responsibility. These are all skills that companies often teach their employees through expensive training.
"Anyone who has been in the Scouts long enough is a trained leader”, postulates former Scout Joschko Ruppersberg in this article. This success is justified by the early assumption of responsibility and the opportunity to try out many aspects in a safe environment. That this is no coincidence becomes clear with the formulation of the mission of the World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM). "The mission of Scouting is to contribute to the education of young people through a system of values based on the Scout Promise and the Scout Law, in order to build a better world in which people realize themselves as individuals and play a constructive role in society.“2
According to WOSM, Scouting offers young people the opportunity to participate in programmes, events, activities and projects that contribute to their personal development. Through these initiatives, young people are expected to become agents of positive change and inspire others to take action.3 By 2023, WOSM promises to become the world's largest educational youth movement, reaching over 100 million young adults.4
If you also look at lists of famous scouts, you will notice that there are numerous heads of state - be it Queen Elizabeth II, the Swedish King Carl Gustaf, Jaques Chirac, the American Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy or Bill Clinton. The names of the entrepreneurs Richard Branson and Bill Gates, the astronaut Neil Armstrong, the musicians Paul McCartney and Lena Meyer-Landrut, the show hosts Stefan Raab, Frank Elstner and Thomas Gottschalk as well as the German politician Norbert Blüm and the former Federal President Horst Köhler can also be found there. However, this is only a short excerpt. This list could be much longer. Regardless of their occupation, all these people have in common that they are leaders and are successful in what they do. The suspicion that Scouting has an influence on the leadership success of these people is confirmed.
If this causality can be confirmed, it would be of great importance, especially for aptitude diagnostic procedures5, as it would provide a new indicator for leadership competence. While professional competence can still be demonstrated by relevant work experience in a CV, it becomes much more difficult in the area of personal, social and methodological competence. Especially in times of a shortage of skilled workers, companies are less likely to recruit managers from their own ranks, so they have to resort to people from outside the company. Whether an employee is suitable for a management position can often only be determined in the course of employment. Even if a miscast is identified during the probationary period, a company loses valuable time and money through induction. Unlike a misfilling of non-managerial positions, a misfilling of managerial positions not only affects the effectiveness and efficiency of the one position but can have a negative impact on the entire team. Therefore, it is particularly relevant for vacant positions with managerial responsibility to recruit suitable managers by means of aptitude diagnostic procedures.
The advantages of filling a vacancy with a person from outside the company are that this candidate is not yet blind to the company and may bring greater know-how with him. Acceptance problems that could arise when former colleagues become superiors are also prevented. Furthermore, according to a study by the International University of Applied Sciences Bad Honnef Bonn, only every fourth specialist is suitable as a manager, as the remaining specialists lack the necessary social and methodological skills.6
It must also be taken into account that the demands on managers are constantly growing. The megatrends of globalization and digitalization are increasingly changing these demands. Intercultural teams working together in different places around the world are the norm rather than the exception these days. Changes are also taking place at ever shorter intervals due to increasing competition and complexity. So it is no wonder that the global market for leadership development is estimated at 300 billion dollars and is steadily increasing year by year.7 Finding an indicator that predicts leadership competence in aptitude diagnostics or identifies a potentially successful leader could develop into a decisive competitive advantage.
1.2 Objective
The aim of this work is to investigate whether the role of the scout is suitable as an indicator of leadership competence. This will be confirmed if it can be shown that Scouting has a significant influence on the development of leadership skills or provides relevant skills that enable Scouts to lead successfully. Therefore, the primary research question derives from this: "Does Scouting influence personal leadership competence?" Furthermore, it should be investigated which Scouting elements have an influence on leadership competence. This leads to the following secondary research question: "Through which Scouting elements is leadership competence positively influenced?" Should it be determined in the course of this work that trained scouts are more suitable for leadership positions, this qualification could be used as an indicator for aptitude diagnostic procedures. Since there are no published representative studies in this context yet, the research questions formulated at the beginning will be examined by means of expert interviews and qualitative content analysis.
1.3 Delimitation
More than 100 years after the founding of the Scout movement, there are Scout Associations in over 210 countries around the world that aim to reach a total of 100 million people by 2023. The World Association of Scouts unites over 170 national associations, the so-called National Scout Organizations’ (NSOs), which meet every three years at the World Scout Conference in order to define and formulate the association's policies and standards, which guide each NSO in its actions. For this reason, there should be no geographical limitation with regard to Scouting. However, since each NSO has its own statutes and the pedagogical concept varies from country to country, the statutes and pedagogical concept of the largest national association in Germany - the Deutsche Pfadfinderschaft Sankt Georg (DPSG) - will be considered as an example. Also for the reason that the demands on leaders are essentially dependent on the individual leadership situation, such as local cultural influences, no geographical limitation will be made.
1.4 Structure of the work
In order to ensure that the research question formulated at the beginning, i.e. whether a scouting career or scout training is a suitable indicator of leadership competence, is answered correctly, the theoretical part of this paper will describe what leadership competence actually means.
To this end, leadership and leadership success are first defined in chapter 2.1 and the framework model of leadership is presented. Then, in order to derive leadership competence, traditional leadership theories, such as trait, behavioural and situational leadership theories, are explained in detail in chapter 2.2, and modern leadership theories, such as emotional, transactional and transformational leadership, as well as various leadership approaches, are explained in chapter 2.3.
In chapter 2.4, relevant skills and characteristics for leadership are derived and leadership competence is defined as a cross-sectional competence on the basis of the action competence model.
In Chapter 2.5, the history and the training concept of the Scouts will be examined in detail. For this purpose, the focus will be on the largest German scout association with 95,000 members - the Deutsche Pfadfinderschaft Sankt Georg (DPSG). In this chapter, the aims of the Scouts and the principles of Scouting activities will be explained.
Since there are no published representative studies on this topic yet, a qualitative data analysis by means of (explorative) expert interviews will be developed in chapter 3. For this purpose, categories according to Mayring are deductively derived from the theory as a basis for the development of the guidelines. The expert interviews will be partially standardised. This is followed by a qualitative data analysis of the collected material by inductively forming categories and coding the material and finally evaluating the findings in Chapter 4. In Chapter 5, these results are interpreted and the author's own procedure is critically reflected and discussed on the basis of scientific quality criteria. This is followed by the author's conclusion and implications for practice and further research.
1.5 Note by the author
It should be mentioned at the outset that I have a personal connection with the Scouts and may have a biased view of the Scout movement, although I have tried to be objective. All relevant statements have been supported by literature, but are partly based on my knowledge of the Scout movement and my personal experiences. I have tried to explain all terms from the context of Scouting as well as possible, so that readers without prior knowledge should also understand them. It should also be mentioned that I use the masculine form of expression in the following for a better reading flow, although all genders are meant at all times. I ask for your indulgence.
2 Theoretical part
As mentioned in 1.4, this chapter will present the theoretical basis for the empirical study that follows in chapter 3. To this end, traditional and modern leadership theories are explained in detail at the outset so that concrete attributes of contemporary leadership competence can then be defined. In the following, the origin and further development of the Scout movement as well as the current and worldwide valid pedagogical concept are described using the example of the statutes of the DPSG.
2.1 Leadership
Depending on the perspective, a wide variety of definitions can be found for the term "leadership". According to Welk, one reason for this is that leadership can be viewed from the perspectives of "economics, law, social sciences, psychology, philosophy and theology, among others."8 According to Neuberger, the term "leadership" is associated with a wide range of emotions. Be it in a positive or negative sense, from heroisation and the cult of personality to a dictatorial, respectively imposed rule of an oppressed totality.
Referring to this multitude of possible perspectives and a markedly confusing variety of definitions in the most diverse lexicons, Welk and Neuberger suggest that the concept of leadership should not be seen "as a final, impenetrable and rigid concept, but rather as a construct that is not free of contradictions and is even ambivalent."9 For these reasons, it is advisable to consider leadership in the respective context. This can be, for example, strategic corporate management or the management of employees by people. The latter is the focus of this paper. According to von Rosenstiel and Comelli, this type of leadership can take place in different ways. One variant is leadership through certain structures, such as a prescribed division of labour, through the use of technology or through defined processes within any software programmes. Another variant is leadership by people, in which the leader uses communication to determine what the person being led does and, above all, how it is done.10
According to Nerdinger, personal leadership is to be understood as a conscious and goal-oriented social influence on the employee, which aims at the company's success.11 This social influence is defined by "the behaviour of the manager, the way in which he or she presents the goals, coordinates the work, motivates the employees and checks the results."12 To this end, the manager has various means of communication at his disposal, such as the recruitment interview, delegation and control talks, the general flow of information and coaching measures.13
Furthermore, leadership contributes significantly to the success of a company. Success can be defined very differently for companies. If for one company it is market share and growth, for another it can be productivity, turnover, profit or return. In either case, success is described as reaching or exceeding goals. Since those who lead often do not have direct influence on the achievement of goals, they must ensure that their employees perform at least to the extent that the goals are also achieved. Accordingly, leadership success can also be derived from the performance of the employees.14 According to Nerdinger, in addition to the goals of the company, human goals should also be pursued. These include the well-being of employees and general satisfaction.15
2.1.1 Leadership versus management
The term "leader", which had negative connotations due to the Nazi cult of leadership, is hardly used in relevant literature nowadays; instead, there is more talk of "manager" or "leader", which is why a detailed explanation and differentiation of these terms is provided below. People entrusted with leadership are often referred to as leaders or managers. In this context, the two terms are often used synonymously, which is partly due to their common denominator of "leading employees". However, the actual meaning of these terms is anything but identical. In the last two decades, the terms "leader" and "leadership" have increasingly been associated with management and leadership qualities in the German-speaking world.
The growing popularity of these terms can be clearly seen, among other things, in the numerous publications formulated in this regard. In addition, the term "leader" has become internationally widespread and, according to Peters, is associated with a certain modernity and internationality. Leadership is also described as a person's ability to lead others on the basis of his or her own personality. It also includes special characteristics that make it possible to convince employees of values, visions and goals16 Furthermore, Peters postulates that "leadership suggests the presence of vocation and charisma, the realisation of the execution of a mission, the belief in the correctness and necessity of the fulfilment of goals and visions"17. Thus, the "leader" is attested a successful exercise of his leadership role and it is assumed that he already possesses the above-mentioned positive qualities, although a "leader" can also have failures.18
According to Bennis, the key differentiators between a manager and a leader are to be found in the area of personal attitudes, for example in relation to goals, attitude to work and personal role. In relation to the manager, this means that the focus of his work is on systems and structures with which the status quo is maintained. This is accompanied by tasks of planning and control, which pursue the goal of perfecting organisational processes through analytical and objectively detached leadership.19 In contrast, the leader promotes the employees' striving for meaning by formulating meaningful goals. This is achieved by developing a vision that sets the collective direction and motivates and inspires employees through communication that awakens understanding and commitment.
Leaders put people and their feelings in the foreground, think in the long term, always challenge the status quo by constantly questioning it and manage to inspire the trust of employees even in volatile times.20 Hinterhuber adds that with good leadership, employees are more committed and perform better than usual.21
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure 1: Comparison of manager and leader (own representation).22
Even though the term "leader" has a more positive connotation than that of manager, both types of leadership are needed in a company - depending on the management level. In the literature, a distinction is often made between the three levels of leadership: normative, strategic and operational23 Kirsch further distinguishes between the political, administrative and operational levels.24 The normative and political level can be summarised as "top management". This is understood to mean the management or the board of directors. At this level, corporate policy decisions are made, vision and mission are formulated, and overarching goals and strategies are defined, taking into account corresponding value premises.25 Middle management is located below top management. This includes business and functional area managers as well as department heads, who make more administrative decisions in their respective areas to realise goals. At this level, the way in which goals are achieved is defined. According to Hoon, "middle managers influence strategy more often than senior managers and are generally more open to innovative issues".26 Leaders and managers have their legitimate place in both top and middle management. At the lower management level, on the other hand, the operational control of work processes takes place. The visionary leader would be out of place here. Instead, the fate of this level is managed by production, department, project and group leaders.27
2.1.2 Leadership success
According to Frank, if one wants to make statements about the success of a leader, this success is measured by the achievement of certain goals.28 This statement already shows that the measurement of success is problematic, since in addition to the leader, the employees being led and external factors also have an influence on the achievement of goals.29 Nevertheless, there are various possibilities for operationalising the measurement and recording of the effectiveness of teams, which are presented below with their advantages and disadvantages.30 For example, the leadership effectiveness of a manager can be evaluated by objectively recording the performance of the team or the organisation.31 One advantage of this variant is that the performance of the team or organisation is also taken into account and the leader is not considered singularly. However, this requires that teams and organisations would have to provide extensive insights into their activities, which presupposes a high degree of willingness. The measurement of success is distorted by other factors affecting the team, such as composition and group dynamics. Well-rehearsed teams will work more effectively than those that are in conflict. Consequently, a valid assessment of leadership success by this method is only possible to a limited extent.
Another way to measure leadership success is 360° feedback, in which a leader is evaluated by all levels of the hierarchy. Ergo, by their own supervisor, other managers at the same level and the employees they manage. In any case, this is a cost-effective variant. The point of criticism is a probable distortion of the measured values due to social desirability, since managed employees are supposed to offer criticism as well as praise.32 If the company does not have a good feedback culture, criticism can put a strain on the cooperation between the manager and those being managed. A more objective assessment of the effectiveness of a manager can be made by external evaluators.
Assessment centres represent another variant for measuring leadership success. In this context, however, assessors from outside the organisation can only evaluate what they perceive in the assessment centre. Further observations from the manager's everyday work are omitted.33 Another variant for determining leadership success is the self-assessment by the respective managers. According to Hogan, the fact that the values obtained in this way tend to be subjectively distorted is related to self-esteem and the tendency to overestimate the manager's own performance.34 Furthermore, successful leadership can be measured by the threat of losing the leadership position, which allows conclusions to be drawn about unsuccessfulness or a lack of skills and abilities.35
Another approach to defining leadership success comes from Von Rosenstiel and Comelli, who understand successful personal leadership not only in business terms as the achievement of goals, but view successful leadership in an interdisciplinary way. Psychology, for example, is concerned with the behaviour of managers, or the management style, in order to examine the behavioural patterns with which employees are influenced and success is achieved.36
Measurable effects resulting from leadership behaviour are, besides economic performance such as turnover, growth and productivity, also intentions to quit, the number of actual resignations, sick days, the problem-solving rate, process and product innovations, accidents at work and suggestions for improvement.37 The behaviour of a manager is significantly influenced by his or her personality. Influencing factors of personality are intelligence, personality structures, social competence and procedural knowledge. Leadership behaviour is also influenced by the situation in which leadership takes place. This includes external factors, such as cultural and political conditions and the legal framework, as well as internal factors, such as the organisational structure and culture and the company's industry. This shows that leadership behaviour cannot be considered in isolation, but that the focus is on the entire process.38
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure 2: The framework model of leadership.39
Nerdinger also postulates that leadership is understood as the behaviour of a leader whose success is influenced by the personality of the leader and the leadership situation. The leadership behaviour influences individual or several persons who subsequently behave in a certain way. Behaviour can vary depending on the circumstances of the situation in which leadership is taking place. If the results of the employees' actions contribute to the company's success, the leadership is also successful.40 Furthermore, through the way they lead - be it authoritarian, cooperative, transactional or transformational - leaders can influence the behaviour of those they lead, which in turn can be assessed through commitment, job satisfaction, qualification and engagement.41
2.2 Traditional leadership theories
If one wants to better understand the many different leadership theories, it is helpful to classify them. Jago divides the different theories into property and behavioural theories, as he assumes that leadership is to be understood as a process on the one hand and as a property and a behaviour on the other.42 Furthermore, he postulates that the person and the action itself can be considered separately.43 Trait theories assume relatively stable characteristics of the leading person, which are independent of time, place and situation but essential for leadership success. In contrast, behavioural theories are characterised by the fact that a certain behaviour of a leader can be flexibly adapted to a concrete situation. Furthermore, a distinction can be made between universal and situational leadership theories, which differ in that in universal leadership theories there are universal, or context-independent behaviours that are reproducible. In contrast, in situational leadership theories, the decisive factor is the leadership situation, for whose respective context several adequate behaviours are possible. In the following, these different theories will be explained in detail.
2.2.1 Property theories
Leadership success is often explained by the personality and characteristics of the leader. Successful leaders have always been considered to have a certain charisma and charisma. They are also assumed to have a certain intelligence and special knowledge that legitimise their special role. Accordingly, the trait theory is based on the assumption that leadership success is due to personality traits. More than 400 years before Christ, Plato already described the ideal leader with the characteristics "good memory, erudition, thirst for knowledge, and a just and humane soul"44. It is therefore not surprising that trait theories are among the oldest theories of leadership. In the literature, the trait theory is also referred to as the Great Man Theory.45 Since Sir Francis Galton's study of the "inherited mental and physical characteristics of great leaders" in 1896, numerous studies on this topic followed over the next decades. For example, from 1900 to 1950 alone, over 120 studies were conducted that examined differences between leaders and non-leaders.46 Most frequently, characteristics of physique, ability (intelligence, knowledge, eloquence), personality (originality, dominance, self-confidence, social skill, emotional control), school achievement and status were examined.47
In the second phase from 1950 - 1970, the focus was on the differences between successful and unsuccessful leaders. In a further 160 studies, the characteristics of responsibility, task fulfilment, perseverance with regard to goal achievement, creativity, self-confidence, stress resistance and the ability to influence were associated with successful leaders.48 Likewise, Mann, Lord, De Vader and Allinger came to the conclusion through a study that leaders are only perceived through high intelligence, adaptability, extroversion and dominance.49 In the following third phase of research in the 1970s, the focus was placed on combinations of different characteristics. According to this, communicative and interpersonal skills, stress and uncertainty tolerance as well as an interest in career advancement are of particular importance for leadership success.50
Despite numerous findings from a multitude of studies, the list of criticisms is not short. Schanz and Lieber criticise that leadership behaviour cannot be explained by personality traits alone. Influences from employees or situations are completely left out. Furthermore, they argue that possibilities for the further development of managers are neglected, as are connections between personality traits and employee satisfaction and performance. It also remains unclear which combinations of traits make leadership success more likely. Thus, it is not clear whether high intelligence and low adaptability are more likely to lead to leadership success than low intelligence and high adaptability. Overall, there is no list of personality traits that are conducive to leadership success in all situations.51
Nevertheless, it can be stated that "the personality of the leader and his or her characteristics [...] undoubtedly have an influence on leadership success"52. However, Nerdinger states that the personality traits of the leader do not have a direct effect on leadership success, but that this is mediated via the perceptions and applications of the employees.53 In the fourth research phase around 1980, Peters noted an upswing in trait theories due to the topic of "women in leadership positions" before the focus of research moved to leadership behaviour.54 By means of meta-analyses between 2002 and 2004, the research group around Timothy Judge came to the conclusion that although the personality of the leader has the greatest influence on the productivity of the employees, this only amounts to 20%. Other influencing factors are the quality of the leader-manager relationship with 10% and the leadership behaviour discussed below with 10%.55
2.2.2 Behavioural theories
After the fourth research phase - concerning the trait theories - the focus of the research shifted to the behaviour of leaders, as the results of leadership research in the context of the trait theories could not sufficiently plausibly explain successful leadership. The research efforts were aimed at finding out how leadership success can be ensured with leadership behaviour. Bisani understands the term "leadership behaviour" as the totality of all activities and behaviours of a leader in the leadership process. Consistent patterns of leadership behaviour, on the other hand, are referred to as leadership style.56 The leadership behaviour of the leader can be directly perceived by the employees and have different characteristics.
In this context, a distinction is made between the dimensions of "employee orientation" and "task orientation". "Employee-oriented leadership behaviour takes into account the personal needs of employees, is concerned about their well-being and respects their ideas. "Accordingly,57 a pronounced employee orientation is conducive to the human goals of a company and is characterised by appreciation. With regard to the achievement of corporate goals, task-oriented leadership behaviour is more likely to be chosen. Here the focus is on the successful completion of tasks and less on the personal interests of the employees. Another independent dimension is the degree of participation, or the extent of participation in decision-making processes. If the decision-making power lies more with the manager, we are talking about an authoritarian style of leadership. If employees are involved in decision-making processes, we are talking about a cooperative style of leadership. The classical dimensions of task and employee orientation were supplemented by Yukl with the dimension of change orientation. This takes into account the change in organisations caused by globalisation and digitalisation and the associated pressure to change.58
Another leadership behaviour is transformational leadership, which aims to give employees a sense of purpose in their work. This is an attempt to change or transform their attitudes to the task for the better.59 Rosenstiel and Wege note, however, that there is no one ideal leadership behaviour that is successful at all times and equally increases both high performance and employee satisfaction. "The decisive factor is which personality shows which behaviour in which situation."60 Accordingly, a leader should show behaviour that is appropriate for the situation and which is perceived by the employee or the team in such a way that their reaction contributes to the company's success or to the company's goals. However, since behavioural leadership research ignores situational conditions of leadership, this is the biggest point of criticism, even though the dimensions of leadership behaviour are helpful for reflecting on one's own leadership behaviour.61 In the further course of the research, the focus changed to situational leadership theories, which will be discussed in more detail below.
2.2.3 Situational leadership theories
Leadership success in situational leadership theories is determined less by the leadership behaviour or the leadership characteristic of the leader per se, but primarily by the right behaviour in a specific leadership situation. The core idea of situational leadership theories is that there is a targeted leadership behaviour for every situation that leads to leadership success. Thus, the right leadership behaviour is determined by the respective situation, which further leads to a variety of theories that interpret the leadership situation differently.
In Fiedler's contingency theory, leadership success, which is defined as the achieved work performance of a led group, is attributed to the personality traits of a leader and a situational favourability.62 This situational favourability is described by the variables "positional power", "task structure" and "leader-employee relationship". Fiedler understands positional power to mean the possibility of influencing or being able to influence those being led, for example by means of reward and punishment systems. If this possibility of exerting influence exists, the situation is favourable. The same applies if goals and ways to achieve them are clearly structured. Elements of a clear task structure are the proof of the factual correctness of decisions, the variety of solutions, the number of correct solutions as well as the clarity of goals. With regard to the leader-employee relationship, the situation is favourable when the leader receives the group's recognition and respect through his personality and the group trusts him.63 The different poles of the variables result in a manageable number of leadership situations. Neuberger criticises, apart from methodological vagueness, that the efficiency of leadership performance is attributed solely to group performance. He also postulates that Fiedler regards leadership behaviour as stable and thus follows the trait theory.64 In contrast, the "maturity model" described by Hersey and Blanchard assumes different forms of the right leadership behaviour of a leader - depending on the leadership situation. In this model, the maturity level of the employee is decisive for the leadership style to be applied. The degree of maturity is described on the one hand by work maturity and on the other hand by personal maturity. The former refers to work-relevant skills, expertise and experience, while personal maturity refers to motivation to assume responsibility, self-confidence and self-esteem. A high or low level of work and personal maturity results in four possible stages of maturity, which can be placed in an ascending order.
Hersey and Blanchard refer to an employee with a low level of personal maturity and a low level of work maturity as maturity level 1. In contrast, an employee with maturity level 2 has a high level of motivation with the same level of work maturity. The opposite is true for an employee with maturity level 3, who has work maturity but is unmotivated. If the employee has specialist knowledge, experience and is motivated, he or she has the highest maturity level 4.65 Specific leadership styles are now assigned to these maturity levels, which differ in their employee and task orientation. The task orientation decreases with increasing maturity. Hersey and Blanchard distinguish, analogous to the increasing maturity level, between an authoritarian (telling), an integrating (selling), a supporting (participating) and a delegating leadership style.66 Weibler criticises that the maturity level is the only situational variable and that the classification of the employees is subjective on the part of the manager.67 Furthermore, according to this model, the leadership style is dependent on the motivation of the employee, which requires a daily review of the leadership style. It is also assumed that a manager masters both employee-oriented and task-oriented leadership behaviour. Nevertheless, this model is particularly suitable for human resource development, since one of the human resource management goals of companies is to promote the independent and responsible work of their employees and the maturity model offers the opportunity to "train employees with regard to their needs. If the weaknesses are in professional competence, further professional training should be attended. If, on the other hand, psychological maturity is weak, this means providing incentives to increase motivation.“68
2.3 Modern leadership theories
2.3.1 Emotional leadership
A more modern approach is the concept of emotional leadership by Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee, which is also about leading correctly in the respective situation. However, the authors postulate that leaders must have a high level of emotional intelligence or emotional competence in order to fully grasp the complexity of situations and thus be able to react adequately. Leaders who have this ability can correctly lead emotionally in a given situation. Emotional intelligence is thus a prerequisite for emotional leadership and consists of the intrapersonal competencies of self-reflection, self-control and motivation as well as the interpersonal competencies of empathy and social competence.69
Peters understands self-reflection as the ability to objectively evaluate one's own abilities, knowledge and motives, to recognise one's own moods, feelings and motives and to be aware of one's own effect on others70 Self-control is understood as the ability to control one's own mood and not to be influenced by external impulses and moods. This competence prevents people from making hasty judgements and enables considered and controlled behaviour. In this context, we speak of high motivation when extrinsic rewards are not in the foreground, but people pursue their goals ambitiously and with a high level of commitment.71
The interpersonal competence empathy "describes the ability of a person to put him/herself in the thoughts and feelings of other persons".72 This implies the ability to recognise and understand other people's ideas and motives on a rational and emotional level.73 In this context, social competence is understood as the recognition of other people as well as one's own adaptability in social situations. According to Peters, socially competent people are "especially in the context of asserting their own needs [...] able to act responsibly and not violate the rights of their fellow human beings".74 In a study, Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee were able to determine that successful leaders who have a high level of emotional intelligence know exactly which leadership style is most suitable in the respective situation. They define and distinguish in emotional leadership between a visionary, coaching democratic, emotion-oriented, demanding and a commanding leadership style.75 However, this repertoire of competencies and leadership styles describes an ideal-typical leader, which is probably rarely found in practice. Nevertheless, this list is interesting for all those who would like to develop themselves further in terms of leadership.76
2.3.2 Transactional leadership
The transactional leadership approach focuses on a rational and consistent exchange relationship between the leader and the managed. Employees receive economic, political or psychological rewards for achieving goals. Economic rewards include, for example, commissions and salary increases, political rewards include promotions, and psychological rewards can be understood as praise, trust and appreciation.77 The essential elements of this leadership style are defined by Burns as individual expectation clarification, performance assurance and sanctioning for non-fulfilment.78 The benefit-oriented exchange of performance and reward makes it clear that extrinsic motivation is the focus of this approach. Within transactional leadership behaviour, Bass and Avolio distinguish between the forms of "Active and Passive Management-by-Exception" and "Conditional Reward", which will be briefly explained below.
Active management-by-exception is described as a behaviour of permanent monitoring and control of work processes. In the case of negative deviations from the norm, the manager intervenes actively and corrects the situation. The non-achievement of goals is sanctioned and there is no reward for the achievement of goals. In passive management-by-exception, the manager intervenes only when absolutely necessary. The rest of the time, the manager stays out of the employees' work. Again, there are no rewards for achieving goals, with the consequence that employees do not perform beyond what is required of them. The concept of conditional rewards is the positive form of transactional leadership that provides rewards for employees when goals are achieved. By identifying the employee's individual needs and preferences, a leader can reward them economically, politically or psychologically depending on their work performance. However, if the goals are not achieved, the transactional leader can also withhold the reward or even sanction it in order to achieve an increase in the employee's performance.79
2.3.3 Transformational leadership
In contrast to situational approaches, which derive the most promising personality traits and behaviours for different situations, the transformational leadership approach attempts to find an answer to the permanently changing world.80 Due to globalisation, digitalisation, urbanisation and demographic change, changes are taking place on numerous levels, so that there are hardly any constant situations to be found and managers have to permanently adapt to the new situations and the complex requirements that go along with them. "Due to the rapidly changing framework conditions and situations, mastering only one type of leadership and applying it in all situations is not sufficient."81 In addition to the classic behaviours of employee and task orientation, Yukl, as mentioned in chapter 2.2, brings a third component of leadership behaviour - change orientation - into focus, which attests leadership success to those leaders who are able to cope with constant change.82 According to von Rosenstiel and Corelli, this way of leading - generating success in times of change as well as in times of stability - represents the greatest challenge to leaders and their behaviour today.83
Transformational leadership has been discussed and studied since the mid-1980s. According to Peters, the reason for the increased interest is the assumption "that transformational leaders are able to motivate their employees to outstanding performance in difficult times"84 Transformational leaders perceive the needs of those they lead and transform, or rather transform, motives, values, goals as well as the trust of employees to a higher level by the leader granting their employees more decision-making authority and actively involving them in decision-making processes, by acting and being perceived as a role model, by promoting change processes through a high level of willingness to cooperate and communication skills, and by communicating a clear vision in the process. By communicating demanding expectations, the leader challenges his or her employees and promotes the employee's self-confidence, among other things, by actively accompanying the realisation.85 Through transformational leadership behaviour, the identification with the company's goals and the commitment of the employees increase, which leads to increased motivation and a rise in willingness to perform. By putting self-interest aside, change becomes possible.86 In order for managers to be able to lead transformationally, an individual employee orientation is required, which can be understood as the individual support of employees and the promotion of their development potential, taking into account their individual needs for growth and further development.87 Furthermore, it requires the ability to stimulate employees to think and act creatively and innovatively, which Bass calls "intellectual stimulation".88 Dörr adds "inspirational motivation" as a further requirement for leaders, which is understood as the ability to motivate employees through inspiring visions. According to this, transformational leaders are "distinguished by their energy, decisiveness, stamina and ability to imagine the future"89 Peters also emphasises the idealising influence of transformational leaders, which is expressed through their specific charisma and authenticity.90 This authentic and effective, respectively charismatic appearance is described by Dörr as a necessary condition for transformational leadership, since this courageous and meaningful power of persuasion91 promotes the emotional bond between leader and employee. However, it must be taken into account that a leader who is perceived as charismatic does not automatically exert a transformational influence on his or her employees. The transformational effect arises when the charismatic qualities have an impact on individual employee orientation, for example.92
The transformational leadership style does not correspond to the opposite dimension of the transactional leadership style, but is rather a complementary leadership style which, in combination, can lead to higher motivation and greater efficiency among those being led. This is the augmentation effect, which has been proven in empirical studies, and which is also expressed in an increased willingness to perform and satisfaction among employees.93 The expected performance of an employee for a reward defined by the manager is increased by transformational leadership behaviour, in that the manager increases the level of expectation of the employee through his or her own actions and appearance.94
2.3.4 Leadership approaches
Today's leadership research focuses particularly on companies that stand out for their economic success. If you look at companies such as Apple, Google or Amazon, for example, you can quickly see that classic instruments of leadership such as target agreements, rigid organisational structures and fixed budgets can be described as old-fashioned95 Various leadership approaches based on "democratic ideals and charismatic, transformational and visionary leadership components"96, which have already been described in chapter 2.3.3, are now cited as the new kind of leadership. In the early 1990s, Bryan first introduced the term "new leadership"and thus focused on the relationship between the leader and the led. He also names the promotion of commitment, the empowerment of employees and the active shaping of change as essential characteristics.97 According to Stippler, classic skills are shifting more and more into the background. These include, for example, maintaining power, distributing responsibility or reacting to environmental changes.98 Peters describes a leader as someone who successfully fulfils this role of leadership with determination, openness and decisiveness99 However, since leadership research is in a constant state of flux, there is a multitude of leadership concepts with the most diverse characteristics, some of which will be presented in the following.
In contrast to the classic understanding of leadership, which is more deficit-oriented, Cameron describes a strength-oriented approach with "positive leadership", which has its origins in positive psychology and can sustainably support leadership in organisations.100 This approach implies that every employee considers it a desirable goal to ensure a fundamentally good working atmosphere. Ideally, this is described as a climate without negative conflicts and emotions, which enables smooth and sustainable operations. The necessary positive and emotional framework conditions are created by the management, whose leadership behaviour also corresponds to a positive manner or transformational leadership behaviour.101 The meaning of their work to be conveyed by the managers to the employees is composed of collective goals and higher moral values. A collective goal may be, for example, to strive for a more efficient, modern or culturally aware company. Higher moral values can be understood as responsibility towards society and justice.102
With regard to the leadership personality, it is equally true in the strength-oriented approach that it can have a positive effect on leadership success by influencing the behaviour or the work performance of the employees. This approach focuses on the psychological capital of the leader, whose characteristics are self-efficacy, hope, optimism and resilience. However, psychological capital can be trained and developed, as it is a temporary state.103 Strength-based, or authentic, leadership is characterised by being self-efficacious, sincere, optimistic, balanced in decision-making, transparent in approach, trust-building, building on own strengths and the strengths of staff, and promoting self-awareness among staff.104 Furthermore, psychological states of the leader can be transferred to the employees, which leads to an improvement in performance and proactivity. Accordingly, strength-based leadership leads to the development of correspondingly strength-oriented employees. According to Cameron, the mutual interactions and reinforcements result in a positive, respectively integral evolutionary organisation.105
“Healthy Leadership" takes into account the increasing performance demands on employees and the increase in mental stress. In the past 15 years, according to a study by the Techniker Krankenkasse, for example, absenteeism due to mental and behavioural disorders has almost doubled, averaging 42 days per case in 2018.106 Also in relation to demographic change, which is characterised by a rising average age of the workforce and an increase in the retirement age, the health of employees is becoming more and more important for the competitiveness of a company. A connection between health and leadership has already been scientifically proven. Behaviours that serve salutogenesis and maintain health are recognition, praise and appreciation, social support, ensuring a positive working atmosphere, granting decision-making and action latitude, conveying a sense of purpose and avoiding work-related stressors.107 In addition to task-related stressors (excessive demands, interruptions) and organisational stressors (noise), these stressors also include time-related stressors (time pressure), social stressors (lack of social support, mobbing) and personal stressors - such as excessive demands on oneself and lack of qualifications.108
In order to prevent long-term physical and psychological stress from resulting from this strain, healthy employee leadership is required, which is only made possible by healthy self-leadership on the part of the manager. This requires emotional intelligence, communication skills, competences in the area of self- and conflict management, the ability to self-direct and a tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty.109 Leaders promote salutogenesis, i.e. increase and maintain the health of themselves and their employees, by reducing work-related stressors and strengthening the sense of coherence, which is characterised by the three factors reflectiveness, self-efficacy and a sense of significance.110 Such healthy employee management promotes motivation and satisfaction as well as willingness and ability to perform, which in turn has an impact on the success of the company.111
In the following, further leadership approaches will be roughly explained. Even though these approaches focus on different aspects, they are united by the fact that they address current challenges and point out approaches to solving them. This multitude of leadership approaches alone underlines the complexity of today's leadership research very well.
Another approach is "value-based leadership", which focuses on the leader-manager relationship. According to Kraemer, this relationship is based on a high level of identification with the leader's ideal values, which lead to a high level of satisfaction and motivation on the part of the employee, which in turn have a greater influence than material rewards. With the help of this approach, it is explained how a leader gains respect, trust and loyalty of his employees and equally generates high performance and enthusiasm of his employees.112
Eichenberg refers to "distance leadership" as leading employees when they are not working on a project in the same place or at the same time, which is increasingly the case due to globalisation and digitalisation. Due to the spatial separation, technical solutions are needed, such as virtual communication, which in turn requires new competences on the part of employees and managers. Taking a proactive role and generating acceptance for the implementation of technical solutions are among the requirements for the leader.113 Furthermore, special competences are needed to enable team processes despite distance. Thus, the distance leadership approach offers much more comprehensive answers than the "e-leadership" approach, which can only be understood as the efficient use of constantly evolving communication media.114
[...]
1 Stock, O. (2006): Online on the Internet.
2 WOSM (2021a): Online on the Internet (translated from English).
3 Cf. WOSM (2021b): Online on the Internet.
4 Cf. WOSM (2021a): Online on the Internet.
5 Procedure for determining suitability profiles within the framework of personnel recruitment.
6 Cf. Rassek, A. (2021): Online im Internet.
7 Cf. Kruse, K. (2021): Online im Internet.
8 Welk, S. (2013): p. 33 & Cf. von Rosenstiel, L., Comelli, G. (2003): p. 75.
9 Welk, S. (2013): p. 33 & Cf. Neuberger, O. (2002): p. 2 ff.
10 Cf. von Rosenstiel, L., Comelli, G. (2003): p. 76 f.
11 Nerdinger, F. W. (2014): p. 84 & Cf. von Rosenstiel, L. (2009): p. 3 ff.
12 von Rosenstiel, L., Comelli, G. (2003): p. 77.
13 Cf. von Rosenstiel (2003): p. 5 & Cf. von Rosenstiel, L., Comelli, G. (2003): p. 77.
14 Cf. Nerdinger, F. W. (2014): p. 84.
15 Cf. Nerdinger, F. W. (2014): p. 84.
16 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 1 f.
17 Peters, T. (2015): p. 2.
18 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 2.
19 Cf. Bennis, W. (1989): p. 7.
20 Cf. Bennis, W. (1989): p. 7.
21 Cf. Hinterhuber (2007): p. 17 f.
22 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 13.
23 Cf. Bleicher, K. (1991): p. 47 ff.
24 Cf. Kirsch, J. (1993): p. 68.
25 Cf. Hoon, C. (2003): p. 147.
26 Hoon, C. (2003): p. 152 f.
27 Cf. Hoon, C. (2003): p. 152 f.
28 Cf. Frank, M. S. (1993): p. 381 ff.
29 Cf. McCormack, L. , Mellor, D (2002): p. 179 ff.
30 Cf. Hogan, R. et al. (1994): p. 493 ff.
31 Cf. Hogan, R. , Kaiser, R.B. (2005): p. 169 ff.
32 Cf. Semadar, A. , Robins, G. , Ferris, G.R. (2006): p. 443 ff.
33 Cf. Mumford, M. D. et al. (2000): p. 115 ff.
34 Cf. Brutus, S. , Fleenor, J. W., McCauley, C. D. (1999): p. 417.
35 Cf. Hogan, R. et al. (1994): p. 495 f.
36 Cf. von Rosenstiel, L., Comelli, G. (2003): p. 77.
37 Cf. von Rosenstiel, L., Comelli, G. (2003): p. 77 ff.
38 Cf. von Rosenstiel, L. (2003): p. 8.
39 Welk, S. (2013): p. 34.
40 Cf. Nerdinger, F. W. (2014): p. 84.
41 Cf. Rosenstiel, L. (2003): p. 8.
42 Cf. Jago, A. G. (1982): S. 215.
43 Cf. Jago, A. G. (1982): S. 316.
44 Peters, T. (2015): p. 20.
45 Cf. Schanz, G. (2000): p. 661 ff.
46 Peters, T. (2015): p. 20 & Cf. Kasper, H., Mayerhofer, W. (1996): p. 162 ff.
47 Cf. Steyrer, J. (1993): p. 112 ff.
48 Cf. Bass, B. M., Stogdill, R. M. (1990): p. 86 ff.
49 Cf. Mann, R. D. (1959): p. 241ff & Lord, R. G. et. al (1986): p. 402 ff.
50 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 21.
51 Cf. Schanz, G. (2000): p. 663 & Cf. Lieber, B. (2007): p. 43.
52 Nerdinger, F. W. (2014): p. 84.
53 Cf. Nerdinger, F. W. (2014): p. 84.
54 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 22.
55 Cf. Judge, T. A. et. al (2004): p. 26.
56 Cf. Bisani, F. (1990): p. 17.
57 Nerdinger, F. W. (2014): p. 84.
58 Cf. Yukl, G. (2002): p. 65 f.
59 Cf. Nerdinger, F. W. (2014): p. 84.
60 Nerdinger, F. W. (2014): p. 84 & Cf. von Rosenstiel, L. & Wegge, J. (2004): p. 494 ff.
61 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 22 f.
62 Cf. Fiedler, F. E. (1967): p. 11.
63 Cf. Fiedler, F. E. (1967): p. 22 ff.
64 Cf. Neuberger, O. (2002): p. 435.
65 Cf. Hersey, P. , Blanchard, K. H. (1982): p. 142 & Cf. Kirchler, E., Walenta, C. (2005): p. 411 ff.
66 Cf. Hersey, P., Blanchard, K. H. (1982): p. 150 ff.
67 Cf. Weibler, J. (2012): p. 630 & Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 27.
68 Peters, T. (2015): p. 26.
69 Cf. Goleman et al. (2003): p. 76 f.
70 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 47.
71 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 48.
72 Kirchgeorg, M. (2018): Online im Internet.
73 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 48.
74 Peters, T. (2015): p. 48 f.
75 Goleman et al. (2003) & Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 49.
76 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 48 f.
77 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 52 f.
78 Cf. Burns, J. (1978): p. 19.
79 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 52f & Cf. Bass, B. M., Avolio, B. J. (1999): p. 105 ff.
80 Cf. von Rosenstiel; L. (2003): p. 15.
81 Welk, S. (2013): p. 35.
82 Cf. Yukl, G. (2006): p. 65.
83 Cf. von Rosenstiel, L., Comelli, G. (2003): p. 109 & Cf. Yukl, G. (2006): p. 65.
84 Peters, T. (2015): p. 55.
85 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 55.
86 Cf. Weinert, A. B. (2004): p. 43.
87 Peters, T. (2015): p. 56 & Cf. Bass, B. M. (1986): p. 104.
88 Peters, T. (2015): p. 56 & Cf. Bass, B. M., Avolio, B. J. (1999): p. 121.
89 Peters, T. (2015): p. 57 & Cf. Dörr, S. (2007): p. 23 ff.
90 Peters, T. (2015): p. 55 f.
91 Cf. Schmidt-Tanger, M. (2009): p. 17 & Cf. Cameron, K. (2008): p. 7.
92 Cf. Dörr, S. (2007): p. 23 ff.
93 Cf. Bass, B. M. (1986): p. 37 f & Cf. Felfe, J. (2006): S. 71.
94 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 57 f.
95 Cf. Lehky, M. (2011): p. 17 & Cf. Seeger, C. (2010): p. 3.
96 Peters, T. (2015): p. 5.
97 Cf. Bryman, A. (1992): p. 82.
98 Cf. Stippler, M. et al. (2010): p. 10 & Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 5.
99 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 5.
100 Cf. Cameron, K. (2008): p. 7.
101 Cf. Cameron, K., Spreitzer, G. (2012): p. 56 ff.
102 Cf. Linley, A., Harrington, S., Garcea, N. (2010): p. 101.
103 Cf. Cameron, K., Spreitzer, G. (2012): p. 17 ff.
104 Cf. Cameron, K. (2008): p. 241 ff & Cf. Linley, A. et al. (2010): p. 39 ff.
105 Cf. Cameron, K., Spreitzer, G. (2012): p. 84 ff.
106 Cf. TK (2019): p. 26.
107 Cf. Matyssek, A. M. (2010): p. 18 ff.
108 Cf. Ducki (2009): p. 16 f.
109 Cf. Sprenger, B. (2012): p. 49 ff.
110 Cf. Antonovsky (1997): p. 34 ff & Cf. Regele, D., Regele, W. (2013): p. 9.
111 Cf. Spieß, E., Stadler, P. (2007): p. 258.
112 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 13 f & Cf. Kraemer, H. M. (2011).
113 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 14 & Cf. Eichenberg, T. (2012).
114 Cf. Peters, T. (2015): p. 14 & Cf. Müller, R. C. (2008).
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