Learning a foreign language is complex and unpredictable. Furthermore, speaking different languages is becoming increasingly important in today’s globalized world. However, it requires several strategies to gain the best possible result. Relevant challenges are problems related to memory, personality, culture shock, communicating with native speakers and boring and traditional teaching methods.
What is the most effective way of learning a foreign language? What is happening in our mind when we are learning a foreign language and how can adult learners overcome their personal challenges? Dr. Jacqueline Żammit explores the use of Maltese verbs by thirty-five non-native learners from all walks of life and different parts of the world to better understand and improve the language learning process.
To provide practical advice to foreign language learners, the author explores the acquisition of Maltese, which could easily be applied to any other foreign language acquisition. The book adopts chaos/complexity theory (C/CT) as a conceptual framework in a unique way and interprets the process of learning from both cognitive and sociocultural perspectives. It addresses any foreign language learner as well as teachers, lecturers, and school administrators. For methodical reasons, the book is also interesting for linguistic researchers. Furthermore, education policymakers will benefit from the findings, especially when it comes to understanding students’ and adult learners’ learning curves and language learning challenges.
This academic textbook is truly remarkable as each chapter starts with a funny comic-strip and a quotation. Join thirty-five adult non-native speakers as they overcome challenges and develop strategies to learn Maltese as a foreign language!
Happy Reading!
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page ...
Dedication .
Preface
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
Chapter Overview
Glossary
Abbreviations
The terms 'Native' vs 'Non-native' speakers
The terms 'Native' vs 'Non-native' speakers
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Learning Maltese as a second language (ML2)
Research Questions
How will this study be an original contribution to knowledge on the subject?
2 UNDERSTANDING INTERLANGUAGE THROUGH CHAOS/COMPLEXITY
THEORY ... 5
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Interlanguage
2.2.1 Interlanguage variability
Systematic variability
2.2.2 The risk of ‘fossilization’ in second language acquisition
2.2.3 Fossilization
‘Language Transfer’
‘Training Transfer’
‘ Overgeneralization ’
2.3 Chaos/Complexity Theory (C/CT)
Introducing C/CT
2.3.1 What are the characteristics of C/CT in SLA?
Dynamic
Complex
Nonlinear
Chaotic
Unpredictability
Butterfly Effect: Sensitivity to Initial Conditions
Open
Self-Organization
Feedback-Sensitive
Adaptive
Strange Attractor in SLA
Fractal Pattern
2.4 C/CT, SLA, Interlanguage and Teaching and Learning
3 THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
3.1 What is Cognitivism?
3.2 From Behaviourism to Cognitivism
3.3 Universal Grammar
3.3.1 Principles and Parameters
3.3.2 Is UG accessible in adult SLA?
3.3.3 Criticism of Universal Grammar
3.3.4 Criticism of the Cognitive Theories of Language Acquisition
3.4 The Age debate
3.4.1 Implicit and Explicit knowledge
3.4.2 Memory issues and forgetfulness in adults acquiring a second language
4 SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AS A SOCIOCULTURAL
PHENOMENON
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Constructivist Approach to Learning a Second Language
The Social Constructivist Perspective on SLA
4.3 The Sociocultural Theory as proposed by Vygotsky
4.3.1 Cultural Mediation and Internalization
Self-Regulation
4.3.2 Private Inner Speech
4.3.3 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Scaffolding
Expert-Learner Interaction and the Comprehensible Input
4.3.4 Lockenean Theory of Language
4.3.5 Output and SLA
Interaction
4.3.6 Activity Theory
4.3.7 Affectivity and Learner’s Motivation
4.4 The Culture Shock Stages
4.5 Criticism of SCT
5 TENSE AND ASPECT IN MALTESE PERFETT AND IMPERFETT
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Definition of Tense and Aspect
5.3 An Overview of the Maltese Language
5.3.1 Learning Maltese tense and aspect as an L2
5.4 The Lack of an Infinitive Form
5.4.1 The similarities between Semitic languages and Maltese
5.5 The Perfett and Imperfett
Mood, Tense and Aspect
5.5.1 Person, Gender and Number
5.5.2 Perfett forms
5.5.3 The imperfett
A future time adverbial
A past habitual or past progressive interpretation
5.5.4 Maltese Verb Chains
5.6 Active/Present Participles
5.7 The ‘ Qed ’ Construction
5.8 The Future and its Markers sa/se, ser, sejjer and ħa
6 METHODOLOGY: THE PARTICIPANTS AND THE DATA COLLECTION
6.1 An Overview
6.2 Pragmatic Research Philosophy
6.3 Mixed Methods Research Design
6.3.1 Triangulation
6.4 Longitudinal Research Design
Data Collection Instruments
6.5 Validity and Reliability
6.5.1 Validity Approaches
6.5.2 Reliability
6.6 Study Aims and Research Questions
6.7 My Role in the Research
6.8 The Sample Size and the Sampling Method
6.8.1 The margin of error in terms of statistical analysis
6.8.2 The participants
6.9 The Pilot Study
6.9.1 The findings of the pilot study
The profile questionnaire
The pilot study of the picture interpretation speaking task
The pilot study of the reflective journal task
The interview pilot study
The TGJT pilot study
Pilot study of the verb conjugation task
6.10 Data Collection
6.10.1 Capturing implicit and explicit knowledge
6.11 The data collection instruments
6.11.1 Administration of the profile questionnaire
Research Question A
6.11.2 Timed Grammaticality Judgment Test
6.11.3 Retrospection of TGJT
6.11.4 The design and procedure for the verb conjugation task
Statistical Analysis of TGJT and VC
Research Question B
6.11.5 Picture Interpretation Speaking Task
6.11.6 Administration of the picture interpretation speaking tasks
6.11.7 Stimulated recall methodology and analysis
Research Question C
6.11.8 The Reflective Journal Task
Timeline and procedure for the reflective journal data collection
6.11.9 Administration of one-on-one interviews
Analysis of reflective journals and interviews
6.12 Validity Procedures
6.12.1 The validity of Research Question A’s Quantitative Measures
6.12.2 The ML2 participants’ performance on the tests’ weak candidates
7 UNDERSTANDING THE LEARNING CHALLENGES 148
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The interviews
1. Do you learn languages just like other subjects?
2. Do you learn Maltese like other languages?
3. Are you more or less motivated now than before to learn Maltese?
4. Do you still study Maltese for the same reasons as previously?
5. Has your Maltese linguistic confidence improved?
6. Do you enjoy learning Maltese verbs in groups, in pairs, at lifelong learning
centre, or on your own?.
7. Do you find any areas of learning Maltese which are particularly interesting,
enjoyable, dull, complicated, simple, frivolous ...?
8. What is your main problem in learning Maltese verbs?
9. What is your opinion about the best way to learn Maltese verbs?
7.3 The reflective journals
The learner’s beliefs related to their language learning
Interaction in Maltese
The learners’ self-assessment of their learning process
7.4 The difficulties faced by ML2 participants
7.4.1 Interruption in ML2 Study
7.4.2 Culture Shock
7.4.3 The Learners’ Loss of Memory due to Aging
7.4.4 Frustration due to Slow Progress (‘Stagnation’) in Learning Maltese
7.4.5 Problems in the initial learning stages
7.4.6 Exam-Triggered Anxiety and Self-doubt
7.4.7 The differences between the participant’s L1 and ML2
7.4.8 Lack of Metalinguistic Awareness
7.4.9 Knowing Arabic as an L1 or L2
7.4.10 Personality Characteristics: Extroversion versus Introversion
7.4.11 Problems while interacting in Maltese
7.4.12 Mood-Related Problems
7.4.13 Lack of Appropriate Affordances
7.4.14 Lack of Appropriate and Timely Corrective Feedback
7.4.15 Inadequate Language Support from Maltese Partners
7.4.16 Teaching Methodologies
7.4.17 Different learning styles
7.4.18 The Relationship between the learning rate and the teacher’s
pedagogy
8 EXPLORING THE STATISTICAL FINDINGS
8.1 The Learning Pattern
8.2 Judgments on which learning curves are based
8.2.1 The most commonly misjudged TGJT sentences by ML2 participants
8.2.2 The most common mistakes in VC sentences by ML2 participants
8.2.3 The TGJT and VC Mean Scores and the different Data Months
A Slight Improvement on TGJT2 and VC2 mean scores in May 2016
A Slight Decline on TGJT3 and VC3 mean scores in October 2016
A Slight Improvement on TGJT4 and VC4 mean scores in January 2017
Exponential Learning on TGJT5 and TGJT6 and VC5 and VC6 mean
scores in March and May 2017
8.3 Different Learning Curves
8.4 Fractal Pattern in TGJT and VC scores
8.5 Summary
9 DISCUSSING THE TYPE OF VERB CHOICE FINDINGS 231
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The Frequencies of the perfett and imperfett forms used by the participants
9.3 Samples of three ML2 Cases and their Choice of Verb Forms
9.3.1 The Correlation between TGJT and VC tasks and the production of perfett
and imperfett
9.4 The Influence of First Language on Second Language Acquisition
9.4.1 The Interlanguage Hypothesis
9.4.2 Time Reference and Context
9.5 Reasons why ML2 learners used the imperfett when describing the pictures
9.5.1 The Choice of verb form and the participants’ L1 teaching and learning.
9.6 The Reasons given by the participants for their chosen verb form
9.7 Summary
10 CLOSURE
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Contribution to knowledge
10.3 Pedagogical Implications
10.4 The Research Questions
Research Question A
Can a pattern be observed over time in the acquisition of verbal tense/aspect by
adult L2 users of Maltese?
Research Question B
Do adult L2 users of Maltese at an intermediate level produce the Perfett and Imperfett at the same frequency as adult L1 users of Maltese?
Research Question C
What kind of difficulties are encountered by adult L2 learners when acquiring Maltese and especially Maltese verbs?
10.5 Limitations of the study
The Sample Size
The Data Collection Instruments
The Learning Curves
10.6 Recommendations for Further Research
11 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL .. 287
11.1 The participant profile questionnaire
11.2 Measuring SLA from a cognitive perspective
11.2.1 Background to Grammaticality Judgment Tests (GJTs)
11.2.2 The Binary Scale
11.2.3 Retrospection of TGJT and VC
11.3 Statistical Measurements and visual representation of Interlanguage
11.3.1 Drawing of illustrative GeoGebra Sketches of the Learning Curves
11.3.2 Learning curves
11.3.3 SPSS Statistical Measures
ANOVA
Pearson Correlation Coefficients between TGJT and VC mean graphs
Multiple Regression Analysis
R2-coefficient of determination,
SLA studies that used Multiple Regression
11.4 Measuring SLA from a sociocognitive perspective
11.4.1 Picture interpretation speaking tasks
11.4.2 Stimulated recall methodology
11.5 Measuring SLA from a sociocultural perspective
11.5.1 The Reflective Journal Task
11.5.2 Limitations of reflective journal data collection
11.6 The Individual Learning Curves
11.6.1 Learning Curve 1
Analysis of Learning Curve 1
Variation 1a of Learning Curve 1
11.6.2 Learning Curve 2
Analysis of Learning Curve 2
11.6.3 Learning Curve 3
11.6.4 Learning Curve 4
11.6.5 Learning Curve 5
11.6.6 Learning Curve 6
Variation 6a of Learning Curve 6
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
PREFACE
“Don't watch the clock; do what it does. Keep going!”
(Sam Levenson)
I exist in a wonderfully international world. I am Maltese and my partner is German, but the only language we share is English, so I'm using it every day. At home, my parents spoke to me mainly in Maltese, while my fondest friends on the television were cartoon characters who spoke to me in rapid-fire Italian.
Learning a new language is never easy, feeling at home with one can be even more challenging, no matter how much you dedicate yourself to its study. Growing up, I dreamed of learning English. The more TV and movies I watched, the more I fantasized about living and speaking like a true American; sometimes I even had an American boyfriend in those daydreams!
Wanting to speak English and learning to speak English turned out to be two very different things, however. I struggled with it mightily because it comes from a different language family than Maltese and Italian. I can still remember the horrified look on the face of my Grade 2 teacher, Miss Saliba, when I pronounced the word "whole" as "wowl." I think she might have considered retiring that day, or at least moving to a new school!
Despite these early struggles, I had a clear vision of myself speaking English in the future. Have you ever watched one of those documentaries where intrepid climbers decide to scale Mount Everest? The first thing you learn is that you cannot see the top of the mountain when you're first starting out. But like the climber who doesn't see the peak, I kept my vision intact through the toughest of circumstances.
At the time of the "whole/wowl" fiasco, I had been learning English for almost two years in primary school. Despite my efforts, things did not seem to be improving much, and I blamed my school lessons as the number one problem. Every other subject at school had come easily to my younger self, so clearly the school wasn't teaching me English the right way. School was that place where all of my burning questions were being answered, and all my friends congregated daily. But English lessons were nothing short of a train wreck. The teachers who spoke it did so with thick Maltese accents that sounded like an extended growl, and the classes they taught were a never-ending chore of grammar patterns that seemed regressive in every way, and mindless simple texts whose stories were about as thrilling as watching paint dry. I never felt like I was going to get past it; something that every six-year-old fears in their heart of hearts. My pronunciation was awful, the verb tenses made no sense, and the endless stream of exceptions to the rules left my head spinning.
There was, however, a light at the end of the tunnel, and eventually my fantasy became reality, and English - as you will understand by reading this book - accepted me as an equal, if not precisely a friend. That is why I can empathise quite well with the participants in my study who are learning Maltese as a second language. They are much braver souls than I was, given that they are not children with wonderfully malleable young brains, but fully-fledged adults, who are defying convention to engage in learning a new skill out of a passionate thirst for it.
This study explores the acquisition of Maltese verbal tense and aspect by adult non-native learners, which could easily be applied to any other second language acquisition. It adopts chaos/complexity theory (C/CT) as a conceptual framework and interprets the process of learning from both cognitive and sociocultural perspectives. The data was collected by means of a number of spoken and written tasks, reflective journals, stimulated recall, and interviews. Thirty-five non-native speakers (L2 users), and fifteen Maltese native speakers (L1 users) who sat for some of the same tasks as L2 users for validation reasons, volunteered for this study’s data collection.
The study’s findings show that there are several challenges that adult learners face while acquiring ML2. These challenges include cultural differences, problems related to memory, lack of motivation, lack of exposure, and lack of support from Maltese L1 users.
The results indicate a non-linear learning curve and a fractal pattern on the quantitative tasks in the acquisition of Maltese as a second language (ML2). The information collected by the quantitative tasks of Timed Grammaticality Judgment Tests and Verb Conjugation tasks confirms this study’s conceptual framework of chaos/complexity theory (C/CT), that is that the process of acquiring ML2 is chaotic, complex, unpredictable, and non-linear. Overall, however, learners scored higher in all tasks in May 2017, when compared to their scores in March 2016, thus showing that learning had taken place.
Finally, the study’s results show that European and Asian learners of ML2 use the imperfett aspect more than the Maltese and Arabic L1 users. The study confirms that Maltese and Arabic L1 users use the perfett much more frequently during picture interpretation tasks, pointing toward the relevance of the learner’s L1 when acquiring an L2.
If you are interested in: Second Language Acquisition (SLA), second language learning challenges, Chaos/Complexity Theory (C/CT), Maltese as a second language (ML2), interlanguage, Non-linear learning curves, then this is the book for you!
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The accomplishment of this book and the research upon which it is based would not have been possible without the support, guidance, and encouragement I received from several people.
First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Antoinette Camilleri Grima, for guiding and supporting me through every step of this research. She set an excellent model as a researcher, mentor, tutor and true inspiration. Her research project, “Exploring the acquisition of Maltese by adult foreign learners: a focus on verbal tense and aspect” (Camilleri, 1988; Camilleri Grima, 2015), galvanised the inception of this book. Professor Camilleri Grima encouraged me to draft academic articles, enrol in conferences, give presentations at seminars, and participate in the Erasmus+ traineeship. The Erasmus+ traineeship financially supported my admission to the University of Edinburgh in 2016 and the University of Cork in 2018. Professor Camilleri Grima also motivated me to present a paper at the Young Researchers Conference in Malta in June 2017, and at the BAAL Conference at the University of Leeds in September 2017. I also delivered lectures about this research at the University of Edinburgh and the University of Antwerp in 2019. Throughout this research, Professor Camilleri Grima painstakingly identified every means to improve the research, and tirelessly inspired me to produce my best work especially at times when I felt confused and full of doubt. Without her continuous support, guidance, help and inspiration, this book would not have seen the light of day.
I also would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr Cathy Benson from the University of Edinburgh, for dedicating her time and effort to refining this research. It is on account of her commitment and counsel that I was able to improve my work substantially, especially my academic English, and her insight on the grammaticality judgement tests. I am very thankful for all her support and guidance through this research; her discussions, suggestions and feedback were extremely valuable. Thanks to Dr Benson, I also became aware of the requirement of stimulated recall method, and for an SPSS ANOVA course to test any statistical significance in the learners’ mean scores. During my Erasmus+ traineeship in Edinburgh during the summer of 2016, Dr Benson designated time from her busy schedule to meet me every single week, incessantly guiding me and referring me to specific studies that could aid me in the pursuit of my research. I am also indebted to her for her counsel, her detailed corrections, and her Academic English seminars during her visits in Malta.
Furthermore, I would like to thank Professor Antonella Sorace from the University of Edinburgh, for her timely help and guidance when it was required. I extend my gratitude, too, to Professor Liberato Camilleri from the University of Malta, for his SPSS courses, as SPSS was an important tool I needed to complete my learning curves and graphs. I also would like to thank Professor Liberato for his dedication and for reviewing the learning curves upon completion with expeditious and insightful feedback. I would also like to acknowledge Professor Mark Borg from the University of Malta, for making me aware which statistical tools I needed to use and for helping me to contrast parametric and non-parametric statistical tools when it was required.
I am also thankful to this book’s participants, who have contributed to this research and shared their interesting stories, strategies, and difficulties of learning Maltese as a second language. I really appreciate that the foreign participants were very keen to contribute to this book because they believed that this could be of great benefit to future learners of Maltese as a second language.
A notable mention should be made of the librarians at the University of Malta, the Main Library of Edinburgh, the library at Moray House School of Education at Edinburgh University, and Cork University library for their patience and guidance.
Last but not least, I would like to take this opportunity to thank my entire family, my parents, Josephine Żammit and Philip Żammit; my partner Sebastian Jarosch and his parents, Helga and Frank Jarosch, my sister, Charmaine Żammit; and my brother Ferdinand Żammit and his wife Christine Żammit Magro; and their daughters Ylenia Żammit and Yanica Ann Żammit, for their relentless commitment to my academic pursuits.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Exploring the interlanguage of adult learners acquiring Maltese as a second language (ML2) verbal tense and aspect, and who are at an intermediate level.
Selinker (1972) introduced the concept of interlanguage.
The notion of interlanguage refers to the form of language that learners of a second language produce in the process of learning a second language by being influenced by their first language (L1) and producing words and grammar that do not exist in their L1 or in the target language (L2).
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Types of Variability in Interlanguage (Adapted from Ellis, 2004, p. 76)
This study in a nutshell:
- Based on two grammar tasks (Timed Grammaticality Judgment Tests and Verb Conjugation tasks), reflective journals, stimulated recall, and picture interpretation spoken tasks which were administered six times over 15 months;
- Involved the participation of 35 ML2 users;
- Assisted by fifteen ML1 users in ascertaining the validity of the tests;
- Documents the difficulties faced by ML2 users as they reported them;
- Identifies the learning curves of the 35 ML2 users’ performance on the two grammar tasks;
- Reports on the most preferred tense and aspect produced by both ML1 and ML2 users during picture interpretation tasks.
More about the participants:
The adult learners who participated in this study had different L1 linguistic systems, such as Semitic, Romance, Germanic, Slavonic, Indo-European, Indo-Aryan, and Indo-Iranian.
Learning any L2 is challenging; learning Maltese could be more so because it is indeed a unique language. Within its complex structure, you will find grammar and vocabulary from three different language families; namely, Semitic, Romance and Anglo-Saxon.
Chapter 2 – U nderstanding Interlanguage through Chaos/Complexity Theory
Discovering the concepts of C haos/ C omplexity T heory (C/CT)
C/CT is used to shed light on the interlanguage of this study’s participants from a sociocognitive point of view. In fact, sociocognitive theories have a cognitive, interactional, and social orientation to SLA, which are regarded as a combination of several processes that show how the mind of a human being develops.
As a sociocognitive theory, C/CT also appreciates that SLA is non-linear, chaotic and unpredictable; that small insignificant changes in the beginning of the SLA learning process can lead to a drastic change later on in the learning process; and insists on on the critical role played by L1 users and teachers in assisting L2 users, as identified by Vassiliki (2005) in the below representation.
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An SLA Socio-Constructivist Framework (Adapted from Simina & Hamel, 2005, p. 222)
Chapter 3 - Cognitive Theories
Exploring the literature on the cognitive perspectives of Second-Language Acquisition (SLA)
In the light of cognitive theory, SLA is a process that comprises conscious and reasoned thinking involving a thoughtful use of active learning strategies. According to McLeod (2015), the cognitive theory of the SLA process concentrates on explicating the psychological approach that triggers acquisition, comprehension, production, and the learning process. Noam Chomsky’s Universal Grammar (UG) was a very important theory for many years in SLA. UG claims that there is a particular set of structural rules that are innate to humankind and void of sensory experience.
Chapter 4 - Sociocultural Theories
Delving into the sociocultural aspects of SLA.
Sociocultural theory (SCT) views L2 learners as active participants in the SLA process, and considers the SLA process as a practice that stems from numerous sociocultural factors such as social interaction, peer interaction, and self-efficacy (Guilloteaux & Dörnyei, 2008). The L1 user’s feedback concerning the L2 user’s production is essential as part of the learner’s input. It is suggested that learners learn their L2 through feedback since they may start understanding their grammatical errors (Guilloteaux & Dörnyei, 2008).
Social interaction with L1 users and peers (such as in group work in class) is crucial for L2 learners because it provides an opportunity for learners’ production, practice, and use of L2. Another sociocultural factor that influences SLA tremendously is self-efficacy, which is defined as the individual’s belief in their skills to achieve a specific goal (Lantolf, 2011). As will be revealed in this book, this factor was identified by the participants themselves as a critical factor in their learning process.
Chapter 5 - Maltese tense and aspect
Reviewing the literature concerning the verbal tense and aspect in Maltese on which the participants were tested.
This study was inspired by Camilleri’s (1988) and Camilleri Grima’s (2015) interesting observation that three Western European learners of ML2 tend to use the imperfett tense/aspect commonly defined as an unrestricted habitual aspect (Borg, 1981), whereas the ML1 users make use of the perfett (past tense) while performing the same tasks. Therefore, this study investigates whether there is a difference in their usage of the imperfett and perfett during their production. This chapter introduces the reader to the relevant grammatical features of Maltese under investigation in this study.
Chapter 6 – Data collection and Analysis
Outlining the epistemology of the data collection instruments, the research method and the research design, and analysing the findings.
The pragmatic research paradigm that informs this study’s mixed methods research design aimed to obtain a valid picture of ML2 user’s interlanguage of Maltese verbal tense and aspect. It also justifies the data collection tools used in this study based on the respective literature and theories.
Here you will read about the procedure of the data collection instruments and how the findings were analysed. You will learn more about the ML1 and ML2 participants, the ethics for the procedure of this study, and the pilot-study’s findings.
The ML2 user’s learning curves provide an answer to research question A. Results of the ML2 users’ mean scores on the Timed Grammaticality Judgment Tests are presented and compared, and the Verb Conjugation tasks drawn through GeoGebra, using SPSS one-way ANOVA and the post hoc LSD SPSS. Inferential statistics were used to compare the average performance of the learners’ scores on six different occasions/months over a period of 15 months.
Answering research question B involved:
- counting and categorising the perfett and imperfett tense/aspect used in the picture interpretation tasks;
- analysing the verbal tense and aspect which the ML2 users and the ML1 users used.
These results confirm Camilleri’s (1988) and Camilleri Grima’s (2015) finding based on the preference of three speakers of West European languages for the imperfett tense and aspect in their production, and the ML1 and ML2 participants’ tendency to avoid the progressive and the restricted habitual aspects.
Chapter 7 – Understanding the Learning Challenges
Analysing the difficulties encountered while learning ML2 and its verbs, to answer research question C.
The participants’ reflective journals, stimulated recall, and the interview were categorised into the following themes:
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Chapter 8 – Exploring the Statistical F indings
Follow the discussion of the study’s findings in the light of the literature, revisit research question A about the learning pattern, and support the study’s conceptual framework of C/CT.
For many decades, the learning process has been assumed to be linear, although, as shown in this chapter, all participants have undergone a non-linear learning pattern concerning Maltese grammar learning. This is in line with C/CT as shown in the following Figure:
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Chapter 9 – Discussing the Type of Verb Choice Findings
Join the discussion of this study’s results, combined with the literature, to address research question B on the choice of verbs by the participants when interpreting the pictures.
From their choice of descriptive verbs, the participants showed that they were influenced by their L1 due to the reasons that are shown in the following Figure.
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Chapter 10 – Closure
Take note of concluding comments on the study’s findings and results, an overview of this study’s limitations, and recommended further studies.
Chapter 1 1 – References and Other Materials
Refer to a list of notable works which contributed to this study, and other complementary materials for reference.
References
Appendices
GLOSSARY
ANOVA
A collection of various statistical models and their estimation techniques for analysing and studying the primary differences in a sample (Cramer et al., 2016, p. 645).
Aspect
Aspects are different ways of viewing the internal temporal constituency of a situation (Holt, 1943, p. 6 in Comrie, 1976, p. 3).
Binary Grammaticality Judgment Tests
A judgment paradigm used to assess the grammatical acceptability by asking the learners to give their opinion regarding the acceptability or unacceptability of a particular sentence (Bidgood et al., 2018, p. 12).
Butterfly Effect
It is the sensitive dependence on initial conditions in which a minor change in one state of a deterministic nonlinear system could significantly result in large differences in a later state of the learning process (Boeing, 2016).
Chaos/Complexity theory (C/CT)
Chaos/complexity theory was first proposed in physical sciences and mathematics and focusses on the behaviour of dynamical systems (such as language acquisition). This theory states that within the apparent randomness and unpredictability of chaotic complex systems, there are underlying patterns, order, feedback sensitive, repetition, self-similarity, fractals, self-organization, and reliance on initial conditions (Bürgisser et al., 2016, p. 3049).
Critical period hypothesis
This hypothesis considers that the ability to acquire a language is biologically linked to age (DeLuca et al., 2018, p. 198).
Explicit Learning/Knowledge
The learning process/knowledge that enables the learners to express what they have understood by attending lessons (Silva et al., 2018, p. 56).
Fossilization
A phenomenon of second language acquisition to describe many forms of detained second-language acquisition progress (Lardiere, 2017, p. 156).
Fractal
It is a characteristic of chaos/complexity theory, that is an infinite, detailed, recursive, and self-similar pattern that repeats itself at different scales (Molent et al., 2017, p. 217).
Grammaticality Judgment Tests (GJTs)
A technique used to assess the explicit knowledge and learning capabilities of second language learners which involves asking the participants to judge the grammaticality of a list of sentences in a language (Vafaee et al., 2016, p. 58).
Imperfett
In general, the Imperfett realises timelessness and durativity (Borg & Azzopardi-Alexander, 1997, p. 220).
Implicit/Tacit Learning/Knowledge
The learning of language in an incidental way, without being conscious of what has been learned (Hervé & Serratrice, 2018, p 769).
Innate Language Faculty
The exclusive ability of human beings to learn and understand multiple languages (Christiansen, & Chater, 2015, p.36).
Interlanguage
An interlanguage is an idiolect developed by a second language learner who preserves certain features of his or her first language and can overgeneralise some L2 (Granger, 2015, p. 22).
Learning Curve
The graphical representation of a person’s rate of learning new skills or gaining experience over time (DeKeyser., 2018, p. 5).
L1 User – Native Speaker
A person who learned to speak and understand a particular language during his/her childhood development (Shiu et al., 2018, p. 219).
L2 User – Non-native Speaker
A person who is learning a language that s/he did not learn to speak as a child (Shiu et al., 2018, p. 219).
Native/First Language
Native/First language is the language that an individual has been exposed to since his/her birth (Ambridge et al., 2015, p. 250).
Nonlinear
A random effect that is independent of its cause and proceeds on its own (Strogatz, 2018, p. 215).
Perfett
A verb form that depicts a complete and finished action and focuses on the end of a situation. In general, the Perfect is associated with past events (Borg & Azzopardi-Alexander, 1997, p. 220).
Second Language
A language that is acquired and locally used in a community but remains non-native. It could be the third, fourth, fifth, etc. language of an individual (Hopp, 2018, p. 5).
Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
A process of learning another language besides the native language (Paul & Elder, 2005, p. 48).
Self-Organization
It is an important characteristic of chaos/complexity theory that is a process in which some form of overall order results from interactions between parts of a system which is initially disordered (Khadartsev et al., 2017, p. 60).
Sociocultural Theory (SCT)
SCT is an emerging theory from psychology that explores the important contributions made by society and culture to individual development (Hawkins, 2018, p.2).
Stimulated Recall
A research method that usually involves the replay of a videotape or an audiotape of a task to stimulate a comment on the individual’s thinking processes at the moment (Mackey & Gass, 2016, p. 102).
Tense
Tense refers to a grammatical system which codes a sequential relationship between the time of the situation (event, action or state) referred to and some other time, usually the time of speech (Comrie 1976, pp.1–2).
Timed Grammaticality Judgment Test (TGJT)
A technique of assessing the explicit knowledge (and implicit knowledge although the latter is debatable) of the students’ grammar knowledge in a specific timely manner (Gutiérrez, 2012, p. 255).
Triangulation
A research technique in which the researcher uses more than one method to understand a phenomenon very well (Peters et al., 2018, p. 1450).
ABBREVIATIONS
1 first person
1SG / 1sg 1st person singular
1Pl / 1pl 1st person plural
2 second person
2SG / 2sg 2nd person singular
2Pl / 2pl 2nd person plural
3 third person
3SG / 3sg 3rd person singular
3sgf / 3F 3rd person singular feminine
3sgm 3rd person singular masculine
3F / 3f 3rd person Feminine
3M / 3m 3rd person Masculine
3Pl / 3pl 3rd person plural
acc accusative case
act. ptcp active participle
at agent trigger
C/CT Chaos/Complexity Theory
conj conjunction
def definite article
dem demonstrative
Ed Education
EEG electroencephalogram – a tracing of the electric impulses of the brain
ETC Employment and Training Corporation
FDH Fundamental difference hypothesis
FEM / F feminine gender
FL foreign language or second (third, fourth, etc.) language
FREC Faculty Research Committee
Frm.vwl formative vowel
FUT/Fut future tense
G goal (in Borg’s (1981) Localist theory)
GEN/gen genitive
GJ Grammaticality Judgment
GJT Grammaticality Judgment Test
HAB habitual aspect
Imper / imp imperative mood
IPFV /IPF / impv imperfective aspect
IRH Impaired representation hypothesis
L1 native language (first language)
L2 second language (foreign language; target language)
L2s second/foreign languages
LAD Language Acquisition Device
M masculine
MFL1 Maltese as a Foreign Language Course 1 (First Year) of Lifelong
Learning
MFL2 Maltese as a Foreign Language Course 2 (Second Year & Third Year)
of Lifelong Learning
MK Metalinguistic Knowledge test
MRI/fMRI functional magnetic resonance imaging
ML2 Maltese as a second language
NEG negation, negative
ML1 user/s native speaker/s
ML2 user/s non-native speaker/s
OIT elicited Oral Imitation Test
ON Oral Narrative Test
PF / pfv perfective aspect
PI picture interpretation
PL / Pl / pl plural
PROG progressive aspect
prosp prospective aspect
PST past tense
R2 R squared
RJ reflective journal
SCT Sociocultural theory
sg singular
sgf singular feminine
sgm singular masculine
SLA second language acquisition
SR stimulated recall
to the moment of utterance as a point (in Borg’s (1981) Localist theory)
t-x a point in time before the moment of utterance (in Borg’s (1981) Localist theory)
tx a point in time subsequent to the moment of utterance (in Borg’s (1981) Localist theory)
TGJT / TGJTs Timed Grammaticality Judgment Test/s
TL target language
UG Universal Grammar
UGJT Untimed Grammaticality Judgment Test
UM University of Malta
UREC University Research Ethics Committee
VC / VCs Verb Conjugation task/Verb Conjugation tasks
ZPD Zone of Proximal Development
How I use the terms ‘Native’ and ‘Non-native’
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
“ Knowledge of languages is the doorway to wisdom”
- Roger Bacon -
wisdomRogCCer Bacon
1.1 Learning Maltese as a second language (ML2)
With Malta’s entry into the European Union in 2004, the Maltese language became one of the official languages of the European Union. This launched the production of official EU documents and communication, giving the right to the Maltese government to request communication competence in Maltese by EU nationals working in Malta under Directive 2005/36/EU, Article 53, apart from third-country nationals. In fact, under the Free Movement of European Nationals and their Family Members Order (the “Order”), and the increase of third-country nationals working in Malta, which is controlled by the Immigration Act (Chapter 217 of the Laws of Malta), a large number of foreign workers have been seeking residence and
asylum in Malta,1 resulting in a demand and significant increase in courses in Maltese as a foreign language.
Many foreign workers continue to find employment in the iGaming industry, financial services, ICT, catering industry, health care and pharmaceuticals, as well as unattractive sectors to Maltese workers such as low-skilled, construction and manual occupations (Micallef, 2018; Barbaro-Sant, 2018). What leads these foreigners to relocate their lives to Malta? Malta’s geographical position between Europe and North Africa, its tax system, the fact that many Maltese can communicate well in English, the local legal framework of iGaming, Malta’s Mediterranean climate, safety, prosperity, low unemployment, ease of finding a job, and political stability are some of those reasons (Lutterbeck, 2009; Saliba, 2017). Saliba (2017) further observes that while most Maltese are bilingual, and Maltese and English are Malta’s official languages, knowledge of Maltese, the national language as declared in the Constitution of Malta, would ensure better and fuller integration of the newly arriving migrants into Maltese society.
In response to the demand for lessons in Maltese as a foreign language, the Government’s Lifelong Learning Centre in Malta offers two programmes, i.e., Malta Qualifications Framework (MQF) Level 1: A1 and A2 in Maltese as a foreign language, which is a one-year programme, and MQF Level 2: B1 and B2 in Maltese as a foreign language, which is a two-year programme. Levels A1, A2, B1, and B2 refer to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR, 2018). Some language schools such as EF International Language School, Inlingua, English Communication School (ECS) and the German Maltese Circle, to name a few, also teach Maltese as a foreign language. Despite the clear demand for and interest in Maltese as a foreign language classes, there is a notable lack of linguistic research and no previous large-scale study examining the acquisition of Maltese as a foreign language. Given the absence of any research to build on, apart from the first analyses of the interlanguage of three adult Maltese as foreign language learners conducted by Camilleri (1988) and Camilleri Grima (2015), the present study focusses on a selection of grammatical items in order to examine the acquisition of Maltese verbal tense and aspect.
A significant finding in Camilleri’s (1988) and Camilleri Grima’s (2015) small-scale projects inspired the current study. According to Camilleri (1988) and Camilleri Grima (2015), in contrast to Maltese people who prefer to use the perfett (a verb form describing a complete action, generally associated with past events), the foreign learner opts for the imperfett (a verb form that refers to the internal temporal constituency of a situation) when describing a set of pictures, in spite of their analysed knowledge of both the imperfett and the perfett. According to Camilleri (1988) and Camilleri Grima (2015), perhaps this means that learners of Maltese as a foreign language find it easier to learn and use the imperfett before the perfett. Camilleri Grima (2015) also noticed that both speakers of Maltese as a first language and Maltese as a foreign language tend to avoid the progressive and restricted habitual forms on production tasks. Inspired by these small-scale projects, this work will investigate and confirm whether thirty-five intermediate adult foreign learners of Maltese (even those from outside Western Europe) prefer to use imperfett rather than perfett, which is the opposite of what Maltese people prefer during language production.
Research Questions
To understand the interlanguage of ML2 users - with specific reference to verbal tense and aspect - this study addresses the following main research question which is subdivided into three sub-questions:
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Figure 1.1: The Study’s Research Questions
How will this study be an original contribution to knowledge on the subject?
1. discovering and documenting the interlanguage of ML2 adult users with special reference to verbal tense and aspect;
2. encompassing two theoretical perspectives, i.e., the cognitive and sociocultural, to throw as much light as possible on the learning of ML2;
3. expanding cognitive investigation by including a focus on implicit knowledge in addition to the Grammaticality Judgment Test;
4. confirming the applicability of Chaos/Complexity theory (C/CT) to SLA and the concept of Interlanguage;
5. providing useful information for ML2 course design, textbook production, syllabus planning and pedagogy, especially (i) by better understanding how SLA takes place; (ii) the stages in which Maltese verbs should be taught; and (iii) by exploring the difficulties that adult learners face when learning ML2, especially its verbal tense and aspect
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CHAPTER 2
UNDERSTANDING INTERLANGUAGE THROUGH CHAOS/COMPLEXITY THEORY
“ In all chaos there is a cosmos,
in all disorder a secret order. ”
- Carl Jung -
2.1 Introduction
There are various existing theories of second language acquisition (SLA), however there is no one complete theory that comprises all the different aspects of the learner’s interlanguage (Larsen Freeman, 2011). Until the mid-1980s, SLA was influenced by cognitive theories and was mostly “mind/brain” oriented. Eventually, however, the social domain of SLA gained acknowledgement, and a number of different viewpoints began to emerge, with specific emphasis on the sociocultural aspects
Since both the cognitive and the sociocultural perspectives have contributed a great deal to SLA research, a sociocognitive approach has been developed that includes both elements. Chaos/complexity theory (C/CT) is the conceptual framework of the current study, as it combines both the cognitive and the sociocultural views to paint a holistic picture of the learner’s interlanguage, and to elucidate the learner’s interlanguage development. Notwithstanding this, one has to admit that what goes on inside the learners’ minds and hearts is dark, messy, and clearly not within the teacher’s control (VanPatten & Williams, 2015). It is not by any stretch of imagination completely under the students’ control either; and C/CT acknowledges this. For this reason, I believe that C/CT is appropriate to study the learner’s interlanguage.
Following a review of the interlanguage concept, which seeks to represent the development of a second language (L2) in the learner’s mind, this chapter will then focus on C/CT, to investigate the learner’s interlanguage from a sociocognitive perspective. Subsequently, we will take a look at conceivable implications of C/CT towards SLA in its dynamic frameworks and theoretical viewpoints.
2. 2 Interlanguage
As with many things, it takes time for a learner to completely master an L2. When learning the L2, learners adopt what is referred to as an interlanguage (see Figure 2.1). The interlanguage hypothesis is the most theoretically developed and investigated approach to the study of L2 users’ proficiency (Stern, 1983; Davies, 2013). The Interlanguage hypothesis developed in the 1960s and 1970s, has been linked to Larry Selinker (1972), who created the terms “interlanguage” and “fossilization” (Davies, 2013). It is concerned with the errors in L2 user’s output as an indication of learning (Davies, 2013), and considers that the human brain has a dormant psychological framework which is working when an individual is trying to learn an L2.
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Figure 2.1: Interlanguage
The concept of interlanguage attempts to explain how an L2 user comprehends, acquires and uses the L2 linguistic patterns (Dufour & Kroll, 1995, Ellis, 2008; Fauziati, 2011; Richard, Platt & Weber, 1985; Selinker, 1972). According to Selinker (1972), this dormant psychological framework in the human mind is very flexible while it performs the function of bridging L1 and L2. The interlanguage of an L2 learner is unique and does not fully resemble the first language (L1) or the target language (TL) that the learner is trying to learn. The native or the first language (L1), and the target or the second language (L2) greatly influence a learner’s interlanguage (Ellis, 2008). When a learner starts learning an L2, there are many uncertainties and confusion about the use of L2. For aspects that are not clear or that are unknown, L2 learners often refer to their L1 (Seyyedrezae, 2014). In the initial stages of learning, the learners are more attracted to their L1 but as they advance, they are less influenced
by their L1 (Seyyedrezae, 2014). However, in all stages of SLA, both L1 and L2 influence the learners’ interlanguage either by transfer or by generalization (Larsen-Freeman, 2014). Nonetheless, interlanguage is also a form of language in its own right, separate and distinguishable from L1 and TL.
When an L2 learner tries to communicate in the target language, they tend to use the rules learnt from their L1 to organise and understand the L2, especially in areas where their competency is limited (Selinker, 1972). Simultaneously, the learners tend to overly generalise the L2 rules learnt; creating a language that is unique, but with many ungrammatical elements and sentences. The uniqueness of an interlanguage entails the distinct use of grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary that is completely different from one learner to another because of the difference in the uniqueness of the perception of the learner, and the kind of their L1 and the L2 (Py, 1986). Interlanguage constantly evolves as the learner gets to revisit and change the language rules with the input that they receive from their peers and teachers (Larsen-Freeman, 2008). As they continue to learn the L2, they get to identify and correct the inaccurate rules that emerged from their L1 features.
Although L2 learners with the same L1 have a lot in common, their interlanguages are different and distinct (Safari & Rashidi, 2015). The learner’s attraction from the L1 can be from an aspect that is different from another learner’s with the same L1. Indeed, one of C/CT characteristics is strange attractor and an L2 learner could be attracted to an aspect from L1, that another L2 learner with the same L1 is not attracted to. Another feature of C/CT is the butterfly effect, which could explain why, despite their similar L1, the SLA of two learners with the same L1, but with different initial conditions, could deviate over time. Besides, it has also been established that the interlanguage can also be affected by other social aspects like the cultural background of the learner (Safari, & Rashidi, 2015) (see Chapter 4).
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“It has been said that something as small as the flutter of a butterfly’s wing can
ultimately cause a typhoon halfway around the world” (Chaos/Complexity Theory)
Figure 2.2: The Butterfly Effect
As mentioned earlier, the idea of interlanguage is generally seen as a bridge between L1 and L2 (Larsen-Freeman, 2017; 2018). However, it is also dynamic, which is in line with C/CT dynamic factor (see Section 2.3.1). Widdowson (1978, p.62) acknowledged that using L2 transforms the learner’s interlanguage. As the learner makes progress in the mastery of L2, they start obtaining new rules and refine the old rules to reflect the competence in L2 better. Therefore, it has been established that the interlanguage rules are not fixed; with the new inputs that the learner gains, they can alter, delete or establish totally different language rules (Safari, & Rashidi, 2015). This essentially agrees with C/CT characteristic that SLA is open (see Section 2.3.1), in which L2 learners are receiving new information, and then their output/production could be different from the information they received.
The rate at which the interlanguage evolves is based on a number of interacting factors, known as self-organization, which is acknowledged by C/CT (see Section 2.3.1). Some of these factors include the language that is being learnt, the learner’s L1, the type and amount of feedback the learner receives such as from the teacher and L1 users, the context of learning and the type of interaction the learner experiences (Larsen-Freeman, 2017). In addition, studies2 have also established that there are other socio-psychological factors such as age, and interests that affect the SLA rate. According to Clark (2002), the rates of acquiring an L2 can also vary from one learner to another based on their ability to absorb the linguistic features of the L2. In learning an L2, these factors influence the direction of the learner’s interlanguage, thus affecting SLA. C/CT recognises that there are different factors interacting with each other when a learner is learning an L2 (see Section 2.3.1).
2. 2 .1 Interlanguage variability
Interlanguage could vary across different contexts, and can be observed when comparing learners’ expressions in discourse, as spontaneous interaction includes the utilization of interlanguage. For instance, the learner’s expression may be more accurate but less fluent in one interaction than in another (Kasper et al., 1993). Therefore, an L2 learner, in some context, can produce an acceptable variant (e.g. “he doesn’t”), while in some other context can produce an unacceptable variant (e.g. “he don’t”). The importance of this phenomenon has been perceived from opposing perspectives by researchers from different traditions. However, C/CT understands that learning is unpredictable and depends on many factors (see Section 2.3.1). It is therefore not surprising that an L2 learner can produce an acceptable and unacceptable aspect of TL in different contexts.
On the other hand, those researchers who hold a Chomskyan viewpoint of SLA (see Section 3.3) tend to consider variability simply as performance errors and they do not accord it any importance. However, those researchers who perceive this as an either psycholinguistic or sociolinguistic point of view consider this variable as a component of interlanguage of the learner (Schmidt, 1980; Wolfram, 1989; Tarone, 2006). According to these scholars, social (contextual) variables can determine a learner’s choice for a certain linguistic variant and not some other, for instance the individual’s status/role and the person to whom they are talking (Kasper et al., 1993). This choice can likewise depend on linguistic variables, for example in formal or informal contexts (Fasold & Preston, 2007).
The interlanguage variables are classified by Ellis (1992) into several types as shown in the Figure below.
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten Figure 2.3: Interlanguage Variables
Systematic varia bility
Interlanguage is systematically variable, meaning that even if some of the observed variability can be a consequence of unexpected considerations concerning a learner’s mental status as well as their feelings, there may be another variation, such as the learner’s accurate production of L2, which could be predicted.
Systematic variability is the result of the differences in the linguistic, psychological and social setting (Wolfram, 1989). For instance, in earlier phases of SLA, a learner might frequently show systematic variability when using the wrong tense because the learner has not yet grasped this grammar concept (Wolfram, 1989). A learner could therefore state “A month ago we go to the beach”, instead of “Last month we went to the beach”. The most essential psychological variable is usually viewed with regard to form and concerns planning time (Wolfram, 1989). If learners have more time to plan, then they are more likely to produce more target-like variants. In this regard, the learners (literate ones) probably produce acceptable forms in written work after a 30-minute plan than in a discussion, requiring them to produce language almost without any planning (Tarone et al., 2009).
Affective features are likewise important in systematic variation. According to Tarone et al. (2009), an example of systematic variation could be found when students in a demanding context; for example, during an important exam; could produce significantly lower acceptable variants than if they were in a non-formal context.
The most relevant concept of systematic variation covered in this book lies in the study design, which considered that the data collection tasks were not undertaken in formal environments. However, one of the data collection instruments, which is the Timed Grammatical Judgment Test (TGJT) explored the learner’s competence in Maltese as a second language (ML2) verbs under time pressure, therefore in a stressful context.
2. 2 .2 The risk of ‘ fossilization ’ in second language acquisition
Besides interlanguage variability, it is also important to consider the fossilization concept, which was initially observed by Selinker (1972). Selinker found that a large percentage (95%) of students who did not manage to attain the identical linguistic knowledge in the L2 that they possessed in their L1. Selinker called this phenomenon fossilization. According to Selinker, the student’s age or the number of learning hours are not relevant, and the fossilization phenomenon tends to occur in most L2 learners’ productive performance. Selinker and Lamendella (1980) argued that regardless of the ambition driving the learner to learn, linguistic ability, aptitude as well as opportunity to speak in an L2 environment, fossilization will happen and is a permanent cessation of the development of interlanguage.
According to Han (2014), ultimate attainment of L2 is rare due to the dual cognitive conflict. Dual cognitive conflict or dissonance is the learner’s mental discomfort or conflict experienced as a result of L1 transfer on SLA. The notion of cognitive conflict seeks to establish why even with presumed success, L2 learners still fall short in some L2 areas, or why learners’ development is interrupted when they try to express themselves in L2, especially when they focus their attention on understanding or producing meaning (Han, 2014). However, this interruption could be a temporary phenomenon during the learner’s SLA and thus, it does not interrupt the L2 learner’s development (Han, 2014).
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten Figure 2.3: Fossilization
Given that this study concerns ML2 learners who have already reached intermediate level, it can be hypothesised that the participants’ performance might be negatively affected by fossilization. However, the learners in the present study continued learning ML2, hence fossilization might not have occurred. Similarly, some habits of verb tense use (i.e. perfett or imperfett, or both) might have been formed within the person’s linguistic profile and might not be developed further irrespective of effort. Lastly, the lack of progress which can be superficially explained by obstacles to learning ML2, such as lack of exposure or extensive distractions, could actually be due to fossilization in ML2.
2. 2 .3 Fossilization
Fossilization in SLA happens at all levels, from the phonological to the pragmatic level, such as, m orphological, fossilization and syntactic fossilization. Fossilization occurs when L2 learners permanently fail to distinguish or use correct tenses in a sentence. However, if learners make a conscious effort to overcome this difficulty, there is a chance of experiencing lower levels of fossilization (Somers Wicka, 2009).
Concerning interlanguage, Ellis (1999, p.351) stated:
…the most interesting phenomena in IL performance are those items, rules and sub-systems which are fossilizable in terms of the five processes: language transfer, transfer of training, strategies of second language learning, strategies of second language communication and overgeneralization of the TL linguistic material.
To present a broader picture, some different processes of fossilization are covered in Figure 2.4.
‘ Language transfer ’
Selinker (1972) concluded that certain grammatical rules in the learners’ interlanguage are derived from their L1, and the transfer of L1 rules could lead to fossilization (Selinker, 1972). It is interesting that Selinker noticed that L1 rules which are transferred may be positive or negative. Positive transfer happens when L1 and L2 share certain common characteristics, essentially aiding in SLA, while negative transfer occurs when there are many differences between L1 and L2 that interfere with SLA. In the context of this study, the existence of positive language transfer can be hypothesised in cases in which the participants’ L1 is Arabic (which has similarities with Maltese in terms of grammar), or Italian (which has similarities with Maltese in terms of vocabulary). In other cases, negative consequences of language transfer might be assumed. The learning curves in the current study are thus predicted to have a number of declines and plateaus due to language transfer or overgeneralization. However, plateaus in learning curves cannot guarantee fossilization because, for instance, the participants in this study were continuing to learn Maltese and to improve their proficiency.
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Figure 2.4: Fossilizable items, rules and sub-systems
‘ Training transfer ’
According to Graham (1981), fossilization can be caused by a lack of formal instruction in L2. Similarly, Valette (1991) distinguished between school learners and street learners as you can see in the figure below.This led her to the conclusion that school learners usually learn more effectively than street learners (see Figure 2.5).
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Figure 2.5: Comparing School learners and Street learners
Moreover, Sims (1989) stated that when learners bring their street learning to class, it disrupts further progress in classroom instruction. In addition, Higgs and Clifford (1982) stated that the modern pedagogic approach to SLA, which gives a lot of importance to communication, frequently comes at the cost of learners’ accuracy in L2, and tends to promote fossilization due to lack of teacher correction of students’ mistakes in their interlanguage. Within the group selected for this study, the participants have been subject to varying degrees of street and school learning. This may be one additional factor affecting the levels of explicit and implicit knowledge acquired, the learning curves, as well as the quality and number of grammatical mistakes - perhaps due to fossilization.
‘ Overgeneralization ’
Ellis (1999, 2000) stated that overgeneralization occurs in instances where students apply a grammar rule to every item of a grammar category by not being aware of any exceptions, such as applying the sufix of ‑ed to the past tense of verbs in English, such as “speak” and “eat”. Ellis claimed that this phenomenon occurs unconsciously, and without the right instruction and correction it can lead to fossilization of language learning.
2.3 Chaos/Complexity Theory (C/CT)
C/CT which is the conceptual framework of the current study helps us understand the L2 learner’s interlanguage from a sociocognitive perspective, and explains better how the learner’s interlanguage evolves over time. There are different factors that influence the L2 learner’s interlanguage, and this makes the SLA process complex, chaotic, unpredictable and non-linear.
Therefore, L2 learners do not master one aspect of a language before they can embark on another aspect, as learning is not linear according to C/CT. C/CT is also referred to as complexity theory, and is becoming increasingly relevant in today’s world due to heightened levels of interconnectivity, dynamism, and technical innovation (Larsen-Freeman, 2017; 2018).
Introducing C/CT
C/CT was first introduced by Edward Lorenz, a meteorologist in mathematics and physical science in the 1960s to define dynamic complex systems (Bagherkazemi & Mowlaei, 2015). Lorenz used a set of twelve mathematical equations intended to precisely predict weather patterns. Experimenting with data obtained from weather stations, he operated a variety of computer programmes to check his idea. Once, instead of re-entering all details, he altered the number 0.506127 to 0.506 and ran his software using this estimated value. In his astonishment, the latest findings were entirely different. A very minor shift in his input data may contribute to a significant difference in his forecasts, and that is the principle of the C/CT butterfly effect. In fact, the changes seemed to be unpredictable in design, as one can see in the below graph which displays one of the participant’s learning curve.
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Figure 2.6: Nonlinear Learning Curve
Over the years, C/CT began to be applied to different human and social science fields. The use of C/CT in social and human science assists us in understanding the process of change, and how elements intersect to promote change (Larsen-Freeman, 2013). As a matter of fact, C/CT focuses on the study of dynamic, complex systems that are non-linear - just like SLA (Larsen-Freeman, 2013).
2.3 .1 What are the characteristics of C/CT in SLA?
In her effort to draw similarities between C/CT and SLA, Larsen-Freeman (1997, pp. 141-165) observed 12 C/CT characteristics relevant to SLA, i.e. SLA is:
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Figure 2.7: Chaos/Complexity Theory Characteristics
Dynamic
Gleick (1987, referenced by Larsen-Freeman, 1997) held the view that the fundamental principle of C/CT is the process as a science instead of state. According to Smith and Samuelson (2003), a change over time is inevitable in a complex system, such as the one pertaining to language. Whether language is viewed synchronically (i.e., referring to a linguistic system as it exists at one point in time) or diachronically (i.e., a linguistic system as it occurs or changes over a period of time), it is clearly dynamic (Larsen-Freeman, 1997).
Complex
Larsen-Freeman (1997) regards complexity as a characteristic of language. Complexity is therefore part of language, since it consists of various factors that interact; such as L1, L2, including an interlanguage, the kind of receiving input/interaction/feedback (Larsen-Freeman, 1997).
Nonlinear
In some traditional theories, for instance, in the information processing model, it is claimed that SLA has an understandable starting point and an end point, as well as a linear kind of improvement for every person. As an initial hypothesis, I predicted that each learner will experience similar stages in SLA. There have been various studies that have not agreed with the linear perspective of SLA (De Bot, 2005), such as the study of Safari & Rashidi (2015). These studies have demonstrated that SLA is more complex, and also unpredictable, and not linear, as in the figure below, but dynamic as in the next figure.
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Figure 2.8: A Linear Learning Curve
Larsen-Freeman (1997) claimed that complex systems are nonlinear, and hence the learner does not master a language concept and then learn the next concept, as is usually implied in L2 textbooks. In fact, although most language classrooms are geared to a linear learning process such as Figure 2.8, especially when it comes to learning tenses; where students first learn the simple present tense, then the present progressive, then the simple past and lastly the present perfect tense; it is evident that learning an L2 does not follow a linear curve (Safari, & Rashidi, 2015).
This explains why instead of seeing progress as each tense is introduced, there are many cases of deteriorating performance. The reason why the learning curves could be plateau or backslide (decline) is that a new rule or concept is introduced into the learner’s interlanguage. The new rule causes the system to collapse or introduces chaos. Before order can be established, the student ought to figure out a way in which the new rule fits in with the other rules in their interlanguage. There is a need for the learner to modify their understanding to accommodate the change (Freeman, 1997). The way of restoring order is associated with other interactions and factors. For instance, by interacting with other students or L1 users, the learners understand how to use the new rule. However, there might still be other factors which are influencing the learner’s interlanguage to find order for this new rule (Tamjid, 2007).
A nonlinear system, such as SLA, is also dynamic and changes over time. The nonlinear learning curve occurs due to the way in which the world is connected, often as a dynamic and complex system (Larsen-Freeman, 1997, 2002; Gleick, 1987). This explains why sometimes learners complain that even though they have studied, for instance, the conjugation of a verb for long hours, they still cannot conjugate this particular verb accurately in a practical context. This is obviously contrary to the traditional belief in a linear learning system, which is usually referred to as “camel’s back” impact. It means that an insignificant trigger, that happens frequently, may be sufficient to cause a great difference/chaos in the system (Larsen-Freeman, 1997).
Chaotic
Larsen-Freeman (1997) claimed that language acquisition experiences a period of chaos before evolving into periods of order due to repeated patterns of interaction or use before submerging once again into periods of chaos. For instance, Larsen-Freeman (1997) mentioned that when learners learn a conjugation of a verb, after more L2 learning, chaos can take place at a point in time. No one knows for sure when or if chaos strikes, but it could take only one trigger in the input to incite chaos.
Unpredictability
Finch (2004) stated that, in addition to patterns of order, complex systems portray unpredictability. For instance, meteorologists are finding that it does not matter if the measurement is advanced or not, the results of the complex connectivities of the weather factors cannot be predicted precisely, and hence it is impossible to predict that rain, for instance, will occur.
Applying this to the unpredictability in SLA, implies that it does not matter how much time and effort a learner invests in learning an L2 because there is instability in the information that is retained in our brain over time (Tarone, 2006).
Butterfly Effect: Sensitivity to Initial Conditions
The butterfly effect is an important characteristic of C/CT and applies to SLA, as shown below (Dörnyei et al., 2015; Jessner, 2017; Larsen-Freeman, 2018; Tu, 2017). The American mathematician and meteorologist, Edward Norton Lorenz (1938-2008) entered data into a different computer programme to recreate weather patterns. He rounded off a computer simulation variable from 0.506127 to 0.506. This small change in his data led to a dramatic transformation, which changed two months of simulated weather completely. Instead of minor changes perpetuating other minor changes, Lorenz became aware that minor changes could lead to enormous consequences over time (like the big circles shown in the Figure below).
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The Lorenz Attractor illustrates how the condition of a dynamic system changes
with time in a complex, non-repeating fashion.
Figure 2.9: Lorenz Attractor
Lorenz’s metaphorical comparison of a butterfly flapping its wings in the West Indies causing a typhoon in Hong Kong shows that the insignificant flap of a butterfly’s wings could drastically change the weather. Thus, small connectivities could lead to larger connectivities after some time (Rea, 2003). The butterfly effect emphasises that if there are minor differences at the beginning, eventually they might lead to dramatic results. Some minor changes may lead to major effects, whereas high disorder might be involved in the system without a lot of change (Larsen-Freeman, 1997, 2011). De Bot et al. (2007) discussed the butterfly effects in SLA. For example, if a learner encounters a problem in a particular concept when learning L2, such as the conjugation of a particular verb in the past tense, it might affect other areas of SLA such as when conjugating this verb during production. Likewise, the effect of phonemic coding difficulties might influence reading and writing skills, and probably even the development of oral language, in perception as well as production (Larsen-Freeman, 1997). According to Larsen-Freeman (1997), the butterfly effect suggests that a small change at the beginning could significantly influence future behaviour.
Open
Like other organisms in nature, SLA is classifiedd as an open system that has ordered complexity and receives feedback on a regular basis, thus it does not correspond with the Second Law of Thermodynamics (Finch, 2002). This Law of Thermodynamicsstates that systems seek a balance/equilibrium (Churchland, 1988). However, complex systems such as SLA are far from being in equilibrium, and as complex, disordered, and nonlinear systems develop, they tend to increase both in complexity and order by being influenced by the energy of the surroundings (Churchland, 1988). The order of such a complex system is influenced by the fact of being feedback sensitive. For example, if the L2 learner produced a mistake in L2 and they received any feedback (input), it could result in the L2 learner discontinuing the production of the same mistake (output), and thus, the disorder giving way to order over time.
Since SLA is an open system, having an ongoing input, a self-organising interlanguage system occurs, and there will be order (and hence improvement and learning) given that there is feedback from teachers and direct experience (Waldrop, 1992). Although order could exist in the learning process, it could also be followed by disorder. If constructive predictions cannot be made, the chaotic dynamic system (in this case, SLA) seems to be random (Strogatz, 2003).
Self-Organization
One of the fundamental factors of a complex system is that everything affects and is influenced by everything else. Such reciprocal, effective connections are referred to as “connectivities” or “self-organization” (Larsen-Freeman, 1997, 2011). According to De Bot et al. (2005), a complex system has items that are directly or indirectly related. This perspective on these complex systems concentrates on organization instead of isolation. Ultimately, complex systems are not in isolation; however, they influence one another in several ways. For instance, everything happening in the language classroom can influence everything else. By way of example, the teacher’s traditional methods or the teacher’s attention dedicated to only some students and not to other students can affect the learners’ motivation and their learning.
Feedback-Sensitive
According to C/CT, it is evident that interlanguage is feedback sensitive (Bagherkazemi & Mowlaei, 2015). Feedback is the information given by the L1 user, the teacher, a peer, etc., concerning the learner’s performance of L2. Corrective feedback can be either positive or negative. Positive feedback in SLA is a comment that shows that what the L2 learner produced in L2 was correct (Ellis, 1997), whereas negative feedback in SLA is generally identified as the information that the L2 learner obtains after making a mistake in L2 (O’Grady, 1997). Reigel (2005) claimed that feedback is the backbone of the chaos or the evolution of the interlanguage. Whichever the case, both positive and negative feedback can impact the learner’s interlanguage and contribute to the complexity of the SLA system.
Appropriate feedback from L1 users, peers and teachers could help L2 learners to improve their SLA. The learners are capable of learning to attain an interlanguage that has rules that are closer to L2 (Larsen-Freeman, 1997). The feedback does not include only the teachers’ correction but encompasses other feedbacks that come with direct interaction with L2. However, teachers might offer great feedback because of the authority they possess when it comes to the use and interpretation of the different lexical and grammatical units of L2 but it is important to note that fluency does not come from grammatical knowledge alone but the use of L2 in the community (Safari & Rashidi, 2015). This is one of the characteristics where C/CT overlaps with sociocultural theory.
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Figure 2.10: The Kind of Feedback received by the L2 Learner
Adaptive
The reward for positive feedback is adaptability to changing environments or situations within a complex system with regard to how the internal and external systems interact and coexist thereafter (Larsen-Freeman, 1997). Adaptability is the underscoring outcome in the process of language acquisition. To learn L2, learners need to adapt to the L2 environment, and conform to the behaviour of the other members of the community (Mohanan, 1992).
Strange Attractor in SLA
De Bot (2008) claimed that the states of less variation are called attractor states. Attractor states can be acknowledged in SLA. For instance, the acquisition of one of L2’s subsystems (i.e., phonetics, phonology, morphology, semantics, etc.) undergoes many stages. De Bot (2005) explained that, in dynamic systems, smaller systems are always a component of greater systems, going from sub-molecular particles to the universe. As these particles evolve, dynamic subsystems seem to be established in particular states, namely attractor states. Although preferred, these attractor states are certainly unpredictable. According to De Bot et al. (2005), various subsystems become stabilised before they have reached the target forms. In fact, fossilization in SLA and L1 influence in SLA are perfect examples of strange attractors. An attractor is called ‘strange’ when it has a fractal structure (see fractal pattern below) and so there is some kind of order/similarity in the disorder/randomness/chaos.
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten Figure 2.11: A kind of Order in the Disorder
Fractal Pattern
According to the fundamental implications of fractal theories in relation to linguistics, the theories have the capability of explaining the patterns of SLA over time. Within the concepts of fractal theory, learning curve patterns might be prone to be repeated in similar (or almost similar) form over time, as noted by Larsen-Freeman (2011) and Finch (2004). As further claimed by Schroeder (1991), fractals as theoretical concepts are defined through a set of specific individual characteristic properties. These properties tend to be observed as constant, irrespective of the number of derivations or subsequent stages of a given considered process, staying largely constant over an extensive range of relevant scales.
2. 4 C/CT, SLA, Interlanguage and Teaching and Learning
Considering the various C/CT characteristics in the language class, Larsen-Freeman (1997) stated that SLA experiences moments of chaos and order similar to what happens to any other living system. Even though Larsen-Freeman (2017, 2018) was not of the opinion that SLA is a physical science, she trusted that C/CT is crucial in outlining the characteristics of SLA, by establishing the meaning of learning (i.e. learning is nonlinear, unpredictable, chaotic, etc.), identifying the differences in the improvement of SLA and explaining the implication of pedagogy including the teacher’s feedback and the changes in a learner’s interlanguage (Larsen-Freeman 1997; 2011; 2018).
Recognising the importance of applying C/CT to SLA does not only help us understand the L2 learner's interlanguage but also promotes alternative better approaches to teaching an L2. The theory clears the misconception and corrects the assumptions about learning that were intertwined with the perception that SLA is linear, fixed, and static (Safari & Rashidi, 2015). With the awareness created by C/CT, L2 teachers can employ teaching approaches that are adaptive, flexible and sensitive to the dynamic nature of a language classroom. Understanding C/CT will assist teachers to plan for unpredictable language classrooms (Seyyedrezae, 2014). Teachers understand that they should focus not only on explicit results and objectives but also employ strategies and scenarios to which the learners can relate, and which enable them to interact, and help them develop their interlanguage.
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Figure 2.12: Feedback
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Figure 2.1 3: “ Feedback is the Heartbeat of Chaos ”
In her speech bubble, the woman in Figure 2.13 is saying, "Illum ġurnata sabiħ." ("Today is a beautiful day"), but she made a mistake in the gender of the adjective ' sabiħ ' [beautiful]), and thus, the Maltese man corrected her. In this way, the man gave her immediate feedback by replying to her, "Aħna ngħidu “ Illum ġurnata sabiħa ” " (“We say "Today is a beautiful day"”). The man corrected the adjective gender mistake.
Brigg (1992, cited in Reigel, 2005) explained that learners can obtain positive feedback from their teachers, peers, and L1 users. However, as much as the rules of the interlanguage can be refined to be more like that of an L2, the interlanguage does not reach the endpoint of the acquisition process (Larsen-Freeman, 2018). Instead, learners develop their interlanguage to move closer and in parallel to the L2 being learnt.
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CHAPTER 3
THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
"Learning another language is not only learning different words for
the same things, but learning another way to think about things."
- Flora Lewis -
3.1 What is Cognitivism?
Cognitivism is a theory of learning about the process that takes place within the mind of the learner while acquiring a second language (L2). This chapter begins with a brief critique of behaviourism, which represents one of the earliest attempts to describe learning and SLA. It then focuses on the cognitive perspective of SLA, describing the philosophical and methodological backgrounds of the cognitivist approaches, their dominant theoretical positions, and central concepts including critiques of these perspectives.
[...]
1 Barbaro-Sant, 2018; Lutterbeck, 2009; Micallef, 2018; Thomas, 2006
2 E.g., Reeve & Deci (1996), Schumann (1978), and Spolsky (1999)
- Citar trabajo
- Jacqueline Żammit (Autor), 2021, A Verbal Odyssey. Learning Maltese as a foreign adult, Múnich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1020349
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