Perfectionist Parenting Style

Contents

CHAPTER 1
CAREER INDECISION
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Rationale For The Book

CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Definition of Career Indecision
2.1.5 Career Indecision in SLTCDM
2.4 Parenting Styles
2.4.1 Baumrind Theory of Parenting Styles
2.4.1.1 Permissive parenting
2.4.1.2 Authoritarian parenting
2.4.1.3 Authoritative parenting
2.5 Parental Perfectionism
2.5.1 The Development of Perfectionism
2.5.2 Assessment of Parental Perfectionism
2.5.3 Consequences of Parental Perfectionism

CHAPTER 3
LINKING THEORY, RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Current Research in Career Indecision
3.2.3 Perceived Parenting Style and Career Indecision
3.2.4 Parental Perfectionism and Career Indecision
3. 3 The Role of Gender in Career Indecision
3.4 Constructing A Conceptual Framework for Career Indecision
3.5 Chapter Summary

CHAPTER 4
ANALAYSIS OF CAREER INDECISION MODEL
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Summary of the Findings

IMPLICATIONS FOR CAREER GUIDANCE AND COUNSLING
5.1 Theoretical Implications
5.2 Practical Implications
5.2.1 Implications for Parents
5.2.2 Implications for Career Counseling
5.2.3 Implication for Prevention/Intervention
4.2.4 Clinical Implications

REFERENCES

About The Authors

Dr. Mahdi Khasmohammadi

is a university lecturer and postdoctoral researcher in career counseling at Allameh Tabataba'i University. He has received his Ph.D in Counseling from University of Putra in Malaysia (UPM) at 2018. Since completing his studies in counseling, he has been researching, educating and consulting in the area of mental health for more than 10 years. As a researcher he conducted studies on the impacts of parenting on career development of adolescents and young adults.

Dr. Sara Ghazizadeh Ehsaei

is a Lecturer and Postdoctoral Researcher in Child Psychology at Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, Iran. She has obtained her Ph.D in Psychology of Child Development from University of Putra in Malaysia (UPM) at 2018. She has practiced as a university lecturer, trainer, educator and psychologist for more than 15 years. Besides her lectures activities, as a researcher she conducted studies on the impacts of parenting on development of children and adolescents.

This book is dedicated to my dear late father

Preface

This book on the intricate relationship between parenting and young adults' career development is written for parents, clinicians, counselors, educators, scholars, researchers, and graduate students specializing in the field of psychology and counseling, particularly career counseling, school counseling and work psychology. Readers can examine the results from studies on young adults' career decision-making in different contexts.

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

CHAPTER 1

CAREER INDECISION

1.1 Introduction

Regarding warning statistics, the young people who struggle to determine the direction of their upcoming life and job, experience a discouraging and devastating situation. As Kelly and Shin (2013) explain, between 11 and 13% of new students at university level have no idea of their major in college. The recent study of Fadaei Nasab (2012) represents that nearly 85% of Iranian students at undergraduate level are doubtful about their major. In this case, males express a higher career indecision compared to females. Likewise freshmen are reported to suffer a higher hesitancy in choosing their occupation compared to sophomores. A study which was accomplished by Ministry of Pacific Island Affairs(2014)resulted in to similar findings. In this study, 64% of the research subjects had not decided about their job. Still, most of the students who had decided on that, had not explored it. In another case, 51% of the volunteers who participated in Rao study (2017) confirmed that they were still undecided about choosing their profession.

During the latest decades, career indecision has been a subject of study for a considerable number of researchers (e.g., Di Fabio, Palazzeschi, Asulin-Peretz, & Gati, 2013; Nauta, 2012; Paulo Jorge Santos, Ferreira, & Goncalves, 2014). The concept of career indecision addresses the problems that bloc normal career-related decisions (Gati, Krausz, & Osipow, 1996). Normally it is considered as a natural part of the process of decision making during professional progress. An example is when an individual should undergo a change from university to workplace. Most of the undecided individuals can conquer this undecidedness personally or by referring to career counselors (Betz & Serling, 1993).

Career indecision is not permanent because it is usually resulted from interpersonal conflicts, obstacles, and/or lack of information (Brown & Lent, 2017). According to the available research results indecisive persons require more time to finalize a decision(Frost & Shows, 1993), they are most susceptible to decision postponement (Rassin & Muris, 2005), are in need of more information before making any decision, suffer a lower self-efficacy in decision-making (Rassin, Muris, Franken, Smit, & Wong, 2007), and point to more post- decisional difficulties (Germeijs & Verschueren, 2011). Moreover, these persons face more challenges in choosing their majors in college and vocational paths (Gayton, Clavin, Clavin, & Broida, 1994; Germeijs, Verschueren, & Soenens, 2006).

A number of researches represent the relation of career indecision with various factors, either personal or impersonal. Creed, Patton, and Prideaux (2006b) believe that career indecision is not separate from the career development concerns, problematic occupational decisions, society's assumptions and observations and the role of the family . These factors impact student's determination in making career choices. Though theories addressing career development emphasize on family's role in career development, few theories have offered detailed discussions of the aspects of these roles in career development. Researches have struggled to elaborate parents' roles in their children's career development. Yet, because of the variety of factors influencing one's career choices, it is not easy to understand the family's roles in these choices.

The reviews done on the literature stress the importance of the role the family plays in vocational development in various periods of life (Leung, Hou, Gati, & Li, 2011; Sovet & Metz, 2014). Concentrating on the role of parental behavior in youths' career development, most studies have probed the overall dimensions of parent-child relationship like patterns of family interaction(Lewis, 2016), parental attachment (Bolat, Odaci, & Odaci, 2016; Fadaei Nasab, Abdul Kadir, Mohd. Noah, & Hassan, 2013; Fraley, Roisman, Booth-LaForce, Owen, & Holland, 2013; Mao, Hsu, & Fang, 2016), parenting styles (Baumrind, 2013; Moilanen, Rasmussen, & Padilla-Walker, 2015; Sovet & Metz, 2014)family climate and family dysfunction (Hargrove, Inman, & Crane, 2005), parental support (Fernandes & Bance, 2015; Ginevra, Nota, & Ferrari, 2015) parental acceptance (Fan, Cheung, Leong, & Cheung, 2014; Georgia Koumoundourou, Tsaousis, & Kounenou, 2011) family patterns of expressiveness and cohesiveness (Lewis, 2016), and parental perfectionism (Khasmohammadi et al., 2010; 2017). These studies have demonstrated that individuation in the parent-child relationship; secure attachment styles, authoritative parenting and generally greater parental support and positive relationships between parents and children are associated with higher career decision self-efficacy, vocational exploration activities, career self-efficacy beliefs, career adaptability, earlier vocational identity development, less irrational career beliefs, and a greater propensity to optimism and hope.

Additionally, it is through family life that the realm of work becomes meaningful for children. In this way, they develop their understanding of education, work, and their career lives (Soresi, Nota, Ferrari, & Givenra, 2014). However, some studies also reported a negative association of vocational identity development, career decision self-efficacy, and career decision making with family conflict and dysfunction. The findings of studies on the influences of parents on career decision-making difficulties and career indecision are heterogeneous. There are some studies which represent a rare or no relation among career indecision, career decision-making difficulties and family variables (Marcionetti, 2014). Despite these, other studies (Bolat et al., 2016; Fernandes & Bance, 2015; Garcia, Restubog, Toledano, Tolentino, & Rafferty, 2012; Isaac, 2014; Khasmohammadi et al., 2010)uncovered rather stronger correlations between decision-making difficulties and career indecision with various family variables such as family patterns of expressiveness and cohesiveness, parental perfectionism and parental support.

One aspect of family interactions that has been less explored in relation to career outcomes is parenting styles. Though parenting styles are generally subjected to ignorance in the career literature, their impact on perceptions of self-efficacy, decision making and the ability for independent exploration should not be undervalued. Lease & Dahlbeck (2009a) pointed parenting styles like demanding styles with characterized by parental control that permits little independent practice of decision making for children may directly affect their decision­making skills.

Lease & Dahlbeck (2009) found that the authoritarian style is related to young women's career decision making rather than the authoritative style. High demandingness and low responsiveness are the characterizing features of the authoritarian parenting style. It was postulated that decreased career decision self-efficacy is related to growing up through an authoritarian parenting style; it leads to exacerbated indecisiveness in career choice. An authoritarian parenting perspective was considerate of career decision in women, while none of the parenting perspectives was significantly considerate of those in men. As a result of direct received guidance, women in this study reflected high levels of efficacy in the process of choosing jobs. On the other hand, direct and authoritarian parenting style assists these young women in choosing their jobs. On the contrary, Whiston (1996)has stated that low level of career decisiveness in women was under the influence of having highly disciplined and controlling families. He argued that having more controlling families with authoritarian nurturing approaches increased the probability of premature career-related decisions in women. Studies hesitate about the positive points of authoritative child-raising stand and the disadvantageous impact of authoritarian child-raising one in choosing jobs.

Roe (1957) was the first person who suggested the idea that because of the initial stages of life spent in a warm, loving, and nurturing atmosphere, people are eager to have the jobs which are people oriented; those whose choices are professions in the scientific fields, come from families with colder emotional interactions. Baumrind (1996) came to recognize that those activities which are shaped by intellectual work, without targeting or being influenced by social consent on child's part, or the ones that request the rejection of something which does not follow the rules laid down by the authority, are less likely to attract the kids who rely on their parents and their wisdom, and learn to agree with and accept their domination. Because career indecisiveness is a common phenomenon in the earlier stages of career development, pressure to decide on a choice can create stress (Feldman, 2003). It has also been found that perceived choice is quite influential in perceived control (Perlmuter, 1980). This suggests that parental pressure in case of career choice may affect children's level of perceived control.

Inspection of the direct connection between parental pressure and independence makes it clear that a parent who respects child's independence and recognizes his/her personal decisions and actions, avoiding imposed strategies based on obedience and surrender, fosters the child's autonomous growth (Perez & Cumsille, 2012). Parenting perfectionism is a kind of ideal perspective where people's personality is assessed and defined through a perfectionistic look to their parenting manners (Snell Jr, Overbey, & Brewer, 2005). Perfectionist parents are distinguished through their self-induced standards, sticking to personal demands, severe adherence to the standards, and strict, critical self-assessment (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990). Soenens et al. (2005) discuss that, due to their sever concentration on their personal needs and desires, maladaptive-perfectionist parents are not easily responsive towards their children's needs. Rather, they prefer to set their own standards for their children's full accomplishments, implementing psychological control as a means of imposing these standards.

There has been little inspection of the connection among parental perfectionism, parent­child communication, and job success. According to the explanation of Cheng & Yuen (2012) different dimensions of parenting (behavioral, cognitive and affective aspects) have been examined through empirical studies to show that they play a significant role in an individual's career development. They went on to explain that parents tend to set high but realistic expectations for their child's school achievement that motivate them to be successful. They detailed their explanation, stating that parents who set high but realistic expectations about their children's educational achievement can inspire them to be successful. Zafar (2012) believes that students favor a major which coursework they like and which their parents favor as well. Roach (2010) studied the particular parental behaviors that are apparently significant in predicting career self-efficacy. Roach found that parental high expectations for students' career predicted vocational self-efficacy. This finding is aligned with previous studies which confirm that parents' expectations were anticipative of young adolescents' vocational self-efficacy (Keller & Whiston, 2008).

Recent and only reseach (Khasmohammadi et al., 2010; 2018) into the effects of parental perfectionism on vocational behavior indicated that there is positive relationship between career indecision and parental perfectionism. Perfectionist parents directly or indirectly providing the condition for their children to become and remain undecided about their own educational and vocational decisions by following perfectionistic approach to their parenting behaviors. They suggest that students who perceive their parents as more dominant and discrepant with high orders and standards reported high level of career indecision.

1.2 Rationale For The Book

The literature review shows the lack of research regarding to discover the combination of individual and parental variables related to career indecision, especially parental perfectionism which is regarded as vital in improvement of career development and career decision making. A gap still exists in the literature according to numerous evidence on the associations between parenting style, and parental perfectionism with career indecision, these studies examined the linear association between variables, and the moderating variable on these associations have not been studied.

.However, it is no clear if parental perfectionism is able to act as a predictor in career development. Thus, though a complete understanding of the deep effects of parenting on career development, Khasmohammadi and his colleagues (2018) study was an attempt to fill a gap in the present literature by scrutinizing the relationships between parenting styles and parental perfectionism with career indecision among undergraduate students.

Even though past studies have recognized diverse socio-demographic factors related to career indecision, however, for providing effective career guidance and appropriate career development interventions, discovering and understanding the effects of gender on career decision-making may be necessary (Niles, Harris-bowlsbey, & Corso, 2013). The recent empirical research reveals inconsistent findings on the correlations between career indecision and gender. Some researchers has reported higher level of career indecision in female (Abu Talib & Tan, 2009; Nota, Ferrari, Solberg, & Soresi, 2007; Patton & Creed, 2001), by contrast, other researchers (Khasmohammadi et al., 2010; Lam & Santos, 2017; Middleton, 2017), reported higher level of career indecision in male.

Although existing results reveal that gender differences in career indecision exist, little research has explored the influence of gender differences between parenting style and parental perfectionism with career indecision among undergraduate students. Furthermore, the direct relationships between the variables have generally been studied. Therefore, this book has been designed to investigate whether gender plays a moderating effect in relationships between career indecision and exogenous variables among undergraduate students according to the latest study of Khasmohammadi and his colleagues (2018). Subsequently, study on the moderating role of gender in association between research variables may help to develop career indecision prevention and intervention programs which are also responsive to gender differences.

Accordingly, this book is written with several aims in mind. It conveys a number of key constructs associated with parental influences career development. Although preliminary evidences have proved parental influences on child's career development, however, the unique combination of parenting styles, parental perfectionism, and career indecision as well as the importance of examining this correlations in a diverse sample, will deliver a unique set of associations in the literature among these concepts and add to the recent capable work of Khasmohammadi and his collogues in 2010 and 2018.

The main rationale for writing this manuscript is to be the first known book into exploration of the relationships between parenting style, parental perfectionism, and career indecision. This book is a primary effort to extend existing research in the areas of career development and parenting by means of the less studied construct of parental perfectionism. This book is unique by 1) pairing the parenting style and parental perfectionism with career indecision, as an explanation of the processing of the career development, and 2) looking for to discover whether gender functions as a moderating factor between parenting style, parental perfectionism and career indecision.

The obtained information about the incidents that happen within the families that guide children to healthier career decisions will offer instructions for policy makers, educators, career advisors, parents and career development professionals to help adults and adolescents in a better way in their career decision making and development process.

Additionally, this book would help researchers, counselors and psychologists to integrate family interaction factors such as parental perfectionism into conceptualizing individuals' career choices, career development, and career decision-making difficulties.

Overall, the inadequate findings as regards to career indecision and gender propose that more research should be done to completely clarify the effect of gender on career indecision. Therefore, this book attempts to provide a deeper understanding on career development between undergraduate students by exploring the role of parental perfectionism and gender on career indecision in order to provide preventive efforts for the reduction of career indecision. Besides, the particular concerns of male and female students is crucial to consider in spite of providing the services they require and to find out whether different counseling interventions needed for male and female students or not.

Ultimately, for adding new findings to literature besides raising knowledge and awareness among professionals in the area of psychology and counseling for assisting people in the process of career development by providing deep understanding about career indecision, the present book was designed to provide answers for the subsequent questions.

Information of this book could be served as a reference for future studies concerning the parenting to young adult's career development. It could pave way for a more comprehensive research on the role of multiple contexts in influencing the dynamic of young adult's career development. The output of this book would be applied by educators, managers and policy makers in development of strategic prevention and treatment plans for reducing career indecision and undecidedness among young adults.

This book is useful for families for improving their relationship with their children. It is important to evaluate how parenting styles and parental perfectionism can be affective during childhood and to better understand the variables that contribute to child career development. Therefore, the findings of the current book will provide information that can help psychologists and counselors to understand how parents impact on children and adolescents grow into competent and well-adjusted adulthood with decided status.

CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL FOUNDATION

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter, Brown and Rector's model of career indecision (2008), Baumrind's theory of parenting styles (1996, 2013), and Wang, Methikalam, and Slaney's family perfectionism framework (2010) in order to clarify the relationships between affective variables on career indecision will be discussed.

2.2 Definition of Career Indecision

Career Indecision is defined as a state where a person is not committed to a particular course of action despite having a need for commitment. Career indecision happens when an individual fails to decide what occupation should be sought(Abu Talib & Tan, 2009; San Diego, 2010). There are enough evidences to show that career indecision has been an obstacle over the years in the life of students. Every individual has to experience indecision since it is recognized as a developmental phase while they are put in a situation where they have to make up their own minds. The effects of indecision can be seen implicitly or explicitly on the issues of choosing a major, making career choices and even employment (Abu Talib & Tan, 2009).

Failure to successfully decision on a career might be a reason for a college student who is willing to drop out without degree completion. Individuals who drop out might find poorer occupation and social outcomes because they develop negative coping skills and a reduced sense of well-being(Shin & Kelly, 2013). Uthayakumar, Schimmack, Hartung, & Rogers (2010) found that when undergraduate students decide on their future job, their decision is influenced by their state of well-being. Results revealed the presence of a direct relationship between career decidedness and subjective well-being. Students who had decided on a career were considerably happier and more satisfied with their lives. In contrast, Feldman (2003) examined career indecision among young adults. His findings illustrated when students are not sure what to decide, they face short-term, negative consequences which occupy their minds. They might be concerned with a loss of earnings, a poorer attitude towards jobs, and lack of enough efficiency in problem solving. There is a relationship between career decidedness and well-being, whereas career indecision can lead to several negative consequences. The early research on career indecision focused its attention on the identification of variables that may distinguish between decisive and indecisive individuals who have to decide on their future careers (Santos & Ferreira, 2012).

Being undecided can prevent people from taking control on their careers (Savickas, 2013). Various studies assume a variety of factors including personal and external variables might lead to career indecision. According to Creed et al. ( 2006), career indecision ensues as a result of some issues regarding career development and problems in making career related decisions, society's expectations and perceptions, as well as the role of the family which may influence the student's ability to make career choices.

Thus, career indecision is quite transient and typically emerges on account of lack of information, obstacles and interpersonal conflicts (Brown, & Lent, 2008). Research has shown that making decision is not fast for indecisive individuals who need more time to make decisions (Frost & Shows, 1993). They are unwilling to make decisions, so they prefer to put off making decision (Rassin & Muris, 2005).

2.1.5 Career Indecision in SLTCDM

SLTCDM which stands for social learning theory of career decision making (Krumboltz, Mitchell, & Jones, 1976) is a beneficial scheme to analyze and explain the factors connected with career decision making. This theory applies the social learning theory to the domain of career, and its source is back to the Bandura (1977) social learning assumption of behavior. The theory presupposes three main classifications of learning experiences that cognitive skills personal behaviors along with options that enable them perform productively .These types are instrumental, associative, and vicarious learning experiences. It also considers socioeconomic conditions as stimulus and the individuals' phycology which aids analyzing the experiences leading to acquisition of cognitive and behavioral skills and performances (Brooks & Brown, 1990).

The SLTCDM believes that career development is a process of learning about ourselves and our choices. It also considers the impact of a variety of factors such as genetic inheritance, conditions of environment, learning experiences, and cognitive, emotional, and performance responses and skills on the career decision making process (Reardon et al., 2002). Social learning theory speculates individual's behavioral and cognitive skills and preferences are influenced by three types of learning experiences which in turn enable the person to perform effectively in environment. Associative learning experiences are those in which the individual will be able to foresee probabilities by observing the relationships between events. Instrumental learning experiences are those in which the person pursues the surroundings directly and is supported or punished because of his/her actions and it is connected with cognitive skills. The last one is vicarious experiences, which occurs when individuals gain new information and ideas or learn new behaviors and skills by watching, listening to, reading about the activities of other people through such media as books, movies, and television (Osipow, 1990).

The social learning theory assumes that all career decision are influenced by some factors such as task approach skills, genetic and environmental conditions as well as learning experiences, However, these factors generate different combinations on interactions, therefore they produce different effect on career choices made by different individuals. According to Brown and Brook (1990), scholastic and vocational preferences and skills may be limited by genetic factors such as race, sex, physical appearance and traits which are inherited qualities. There are some factors which are unavoidable and out of individuals' control and their influence might be predictable or unpredictable. These factors are physical conditions and occurrences including economic, political, cultural and social drives as well as typical disasters which can influence the career decision making of individuals.

Krumboltz et al. (1976) attributed career indecision to the unsatisfactory or insufficient opportunities for learning or the fact that individuals have not learned and applied the systematic way of making decisions. One source of learning experience is family therefore it could explain the importance of family interactions in facilitating positive career development. It also can provide a useful model to assist parent in being more effective in promoting the career decision making of their children. Krumboltz (1992) believed that one source of anxiety regarding career indecision could be family and social pressure to make a prestigious career decision. This pressure is even more in Asian families, since parents have high expectations about educational and career attainments of their children (Sue & Okazaki, 1990).

2.4 Parenting Styles

Warmth and control from parents are two dimensions of parental behavior that influence children's development. Baumrind (1966, 1971, 1991)described four parenting styles that correspond to high and low scores on an index of parental warmth and an index of parental control. Parental warmth is the degree of parents' approval and impartiality towards their children and parental control is the extent to which parents observe and control their child's behavior - from being very strict to being lenient and setting few rules or demands. Thus, the four parenting styles are: authoritarian (high control and low warmth), authoritative (high control and high warmth), gentle permissive (low control and high warmth), and inattentive permissive (low control and low warmth).

Children may perceive or witness parenting styles which are different from what parents think about their own parenting. Baumrind (2013)explained that although the crux of her research is to show how a child's behavior is altered by his or her parents, it is urgent to see how parental behavior is influenced by children as well. Overbeek, Vollebergh, Meeus, de Graaf andEngels (2004)explained that after handling unbalanced behavoiur that was mentioned before along with contentment with prevailing companion relationships, it was understood that the development of mental disorders in adulthood are influenced by a person's parental attention and consideration during adolescence and childhood. This directs to the notion that how childrearing will regulate other essential sides of personage's life.

Gonzalez et al. (2001) found that Adopting different childrearing patterns are usually upheld or developed gradually. With the aim of bearing this out, Turner and Lapan (2002) found that for over one third of selected adolescents who carried out their career responsibilities confidently had support on behalf of their parent. Parish and McCluskey (1992) delineated that college students' self-concept was a result of being brought up by parents who gave warmth to their children instead of imposing restrictions on them. They discussed that this could be related to a hypothesis that young adults follow their parents' actions and consider them as their models whose behavior is perceived by their young adults. Marsiglia (2002) found that college students who comprehend their parents as authoritative showed a superior performance in psychosocial growth than their peers whose parents are considered as dictatorial or tolerant.

Marsigilia (2002) concluded children whose parents have constant maturity demands and expect too much responsiveness from their children are able to excel in key developmental tasks, while fathers and mothers who did not set strict instructions with great levels of responsiveness like authoritarian and permissive parents were less prosperous in bringing up their children who are able to carry out the tasks related to their psychosocial development. Research has shown that how parents react toward their children as young adults affect directly their children's' choices and their ways to achieve what they are looking for in the future. (Winakur, 2011). Chan and Chan (2005)found that a parent's guidance on their child's proficiency of their targets and performance was regulated by perceiving the concept of parenting style by children. Despite previous investigation, this paradox is more noticeable when it is discovered that Chinese parents are controlling. Bednar and Fisher (2003) found that those who saw their parents as permissive or strict were more willing to question their peers for consultation to make decision. Miller, Lambert, and Neumeister (2012) examined the rapport between college students' observed style of parenting, idealism and originality. Miller et al. (2012)found positive parallel relationships.

Many researchers have suggested that family's role especially parents' role is very significant in adolescent's career development. Byant, et al. (2006) has stated that when adolescents have questions and look for information on jobs, they go to their parents to ask and rely on their parents' knowledge. Since 1920s Developmental psychologists have been enthusiastic to know how the growth of children's social and instrumental competency is determined by parents. The analysis of what has been entitled "parenting style" is one of the most powerful approaches to this area. The impact of parenting styles on students' development has been scholars' paramount concern for years.

However, the choice of parenting styles affecting career progress, still need to be further investigated (Bryant et al., 2006). Baumrind (1971)introduced the idea of parenting style for the first time. According to Darling and Steinberg (1993)many studies on investigating parenting behavior applying long -term approach had been based on the common use of the Baumrind's framework. Baumrind's parenting styles for over 40 years have been advocated by many researches (Darling & Steinberg, 1993). The results of Baumrind's parenting styles have similarly been employed in pieces of researches throughout countries, age gender, as well as socioeconomic prestige (Kennell, 1994). Nevertheless, when research involves different ethnic groups, mix findings have been found (Darling & Steinberg, 1993).

According to Baumrind (1991), raising a kid stands as sophisticated activity that needs specific treatments. Each kind of parenting style may affect children's development positively as well as negatively. Parenting styles can be labeled as “patterns of manners that leading family members who provide direct care for children use to cooperate with their youngsters” (Mohamad, et al., 2011). According to Baumrind's classification, parents were subdivided into four types on the basis of the two dimensions of (i) control or demandingness and (ii) friendliness or responsiveness (Martin & Colbert, 1997). High parental cordiality or receptiveness allude to how they accept, respond, show their affection and how they motivate their children and see the world from their children's perspectives .High parental restraint or pressure refers to the establishment of high expectations and standards for children so that parents always observe children's behavior to see that how submissive they are and how they are respecting and following the rules(Martin & Colbert, 1997). Authoritarian, authoritative, permissive and rejecting are four different types of parenting styles introduced by Baumrind , where differences in the amount of nurturing (or warmth) a child receives is monitored and the child's actions and performance are carefully observed (Baumrind, 1991). Previous studies show extremely low percentage of rejecting parenting style amongst parents (Kang & Moore, 2011).

2.4.1 Baumrind Theory of Parenting Styles

Baumrind (1971, 2013) suggested three types of parenting styles; Permissive, Authoritarian, and Authoritative.

2.4.1.1 Permissive parenting

Parents with this style have excessive warmth and less control. Parents are patient and tolerant enough to accept their children's impulses, have fewer demands for mature behavior , let their children use self-regulation and try to decrease the use of punishment as much as in raising their children (Baumrind, 1989) . The result of this parenting style is usually premature child(Anderson, Sabatelli, & Kosutic, 2007; Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987; Kracke, 1997; Way & Rossman, 1996). Thus, the child fails to improve self-directing abilities and faces failure in the academic world (Diaz, 2005). According to Kerka (2000),children coming from permissive parents will not be able to behave properly as they are not given proper guidelines how to react whenever they face other people rather than their own family members or encounter a situation which is outside their family circle .

As a consequence, children are put in a situation in which they face both their parents' wishes and their own career interests (Kerka, 2000). Darling and Steinburn (1993) stated that fathers and mothers might be different in terms of their control and behaving towards their children. However, the general fact is parents' principle duty is to monitor, teach their children (Anderson et al., 2007). Parenting style is essential to bring up a happy and healthy child equipped with the abilities to perform successfully in the fields including societal competence, psychosocial advancement, instrumental capability and problem behavior (Anderson et al., 2007; Hong, 2012).

2.4.1.2 Authoritarian parenting

Authoritarian parenting depicts high authority and control but low in friendliness where child's attitude and behaviors is regulated, formed, evaluated by their parents based on a set of criteria. As a result, it can bring contradiction between the person and the occupation (Kerka, 2000). Koumoundourou et al.(2011) had ascertained that adolescent's career decision making is negatively affected by authoritarian parenting style. In Turkey, a study had shown that children have lost their self-esteem due to their parents' stern and meticulous attitudes. The understandings of teenagers with their parents, mostly with their mothers, play an important role in the development of adolescents (Aslan, 2011).In a study conducted by Colpan, et al. (2002) found that children coming from dictatorial background are prone to have to have poor self-image. Nonetheless, Lease & Dahbeck (2009)reported reverse outcome where career decision making has nothing to do with the authoritarian parenting style.

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