This document describes the game of Bulls and Cows and the research previously done on it. We then proceed to discuss our simplified algorithm, which can be used practically by humans during course of play. An extended version of the algorithm, which leverages computational power to guess the code quickly and more efficiently, has also been explored. Lastly, extensive human trials have been conducted to study the effective- ness of the algorithm, and it has been shown that the algorithm results in a marked decrease in the average number of guesses in which a code is guessed by the code-breaker.
Abstract
This document describes the game of Bulls and Cows and the research previously done on it. We then proceed to discuss our simplified algo- rithm which can be used practically by humans during course of play. An extended version of the algorithm, which leverages computational power to guess the code quickly and more efficiently, has also been explored. Lastly, extensive human trials have been conducted to study the effective- ness of the algorithm, and it has been shown that the algorithm results in a marked decrease in the average number of guesses in which a code is guessed by the code-breaker.
1 Introduction
The game of Bulls & Cows is played between 2 players, one of whom is the code-maker and chooses a secret code, and the other, the code-breaker, who has to guess the secret code in the minimum number of guesses.
2 History
Bulls and Cows is a pen-and-paper code breaking game, released before and similar to the commercially popular Mastermind. The first computer program related to the game was written by Frank King at the University Of Cambridge [3] as MOO, and was similarly implemented by J. M. Grochow at MIT. The user had to enter values of Bulls & Cows, and the program used a simple predictor algorithm developed by Dr. Larmouth to guess values.
The research problem usually defined and solved involves the maximum amount of guesses it will take to guess any number. In 1976, Donald Knuth published an article showing that it takes a maximum of 5 guesses to solve a game of Mastermind [6]. B&C was extensively researched upon by Tetsuro Tanaka of University of Tokyo [4], who first found the minimum expected game length of 5.213. He also proved that the game tree for head to head play differs from that of the minimum expected game length.
3 Formalization
The code-maker writes a k-digit secret number, without repetition of digits. The code-breaker tries to guess number, and is given the number of matches after each guess. If the matching digits are in their right positions, they are “bulls”, if in different positions, they are “cows”. The objective of the game is to correctly guess the number in the least number of attempts.
3.1 Code
The chosen code by the code-maker is of the format < a1, a2, a3, a4, ak>, such that [illustration not visible in this excerpt] is [illustration not visible in this excerpt]. A permutation of digits satisfying the requirement of no digits repeating is said to be a ‘valid permutation’ or ‘possible permutation’. Hence, it can be seen that the number of possible codes can be found out using P (10, k); where k is the number of digits. For k = 3, 720 possible codes can be created.
3.2 Guess
The codebreaker then responds with a guess (say < b1, b2, b3...bk>).
3.3 Response
It is given in two parts. Bulls: The code-maker has to tell the number of correct hits [illustration not visible in this excerpt], known as bulls. Cows: The number of digits of digits present in the secret code but not at the right place [illustration not visible in this excerpt]
There are a maximum of [illustration not visible in this excerpt] possible responses, which include different combinations of Bulls and Cows. We subtract 1 because if the number of bulls is k-1, the number of cows cannot be one as it has only place it can go to.
We have taken a generalization of k = 3, whenever needed, throughout the paper.
4 Previous Research
Optimization techniques applied to any deductive 2-player games have two ob- jectives:
1. Minimizing the maximum numbers of guesses it can take to complete the game, or the worst case for a game.
2. Minimizing the average number of guesses it will take to guess a randomly assigned number, or the expected game length.
Known theoretical results for a generic four-place B&C game:
- The minimum expected game length is 5.213, and was proved by Tetsuro Tanaka in 1996 [4].
- The maximum number of guesses in which a number can be correctly deduced is 7, proved by multiple researchers [2].
The most optimal strategy for playing Bulls & Cows has been deduced using k-way-branching (KWB), an advanced clustering technique that heuristically obtains a strategy for the worst case scenario. Two clusters can be approximated to be equivalent if one can be derived from the other using systematic renaming of symbols. At each cluster, instead of all possible guesses, only the most possible guesses are considered, which is found using the responses given after each guess. An estimate is made for each guess, and is then used to evaluate the order in which each sub-tree is evaluated.
illustration not visible in this excerpt
While these techniques are highly efficient, we wanted to create our own algorithm which is can be easily explained and used practically by humans while playing the game.
5 Algorithms & Strategies
We primarily use 2 strategies, a simple strategy and then an extended strategy. The simple strategy can be explained and used by humans easily, the extended strategy requires computing power.
We use the concept of pruned set here. A pruned set is one where using on the outcomes of a guess, impossible combinations are eliminated. For example, if the code is 026 and we guess 602, we get a response of < 0b, 3c>, and the possibilities are pruned to {026, 260} only.
While discussing the efficiency of any method, and making a decision re- garding the next guess, the worst case scenario will always will be taken as the number of moves. (This decision rule is known as Minimax in game theory.) Optimum playing strategies try to eliminate the maximum number of possible values with each guess.
5.1 Responding
An initial object is created with < 0b, 0c> . Each digit of the guess is iterated through and is checked for presence in the code. If the digit is present, we check if it is at the right location. If it is at the right location, number of bulls is incremented otherwise number of cows is incremented.
illustration not visible in this excerpt
Listing 1: Responding Function
5.2 Pruning
The idea of responding can be understood as a hash function, similar to MD5/SHA- 2 but less complicated, since it is a one-way function.
Hence, we use a simple brute-force approach to prune a set. We test all responses from all possible permutations, and compare it against the actual response. We add all permutations that give a matching response to the new set, which we deliver as the pruned set on completion. The code is described below
illustration not visible in this excerpt
Listing 2: Pruning Function
5.3 Human-friendly strategy
The important thing to is that it isn’t always necessary that the guess, which eliminates the most number of possible values, and prunes the set the most, belongs the the currently pruned set.
For example, while guessing the number 798, a code-breaker arrives on the set {098, 198, 298, 398, 498, 598, 698, 798}. If numbers from the set are selected and guessed, a maximum of 8 attempts might be required before the final answer is required.
Instead, guessing 012 will lead to the response < 0b, 0c> and set being pruned to {398, 498, 598, 698, 798}. Again guessing 345 will similarly reduce the set to {698, 798}. Thus the maximum number of attempts gets reduced to 4.
Statistically, the second approach is better. Formalizing the algorithm mathematically, we find that it requires the following steps:
1. Order digits by frequency as they occur in the pruned set.
2. Choose the digits that occur least frequently and form a guess with them.
This strategy is, of course, rudimentary. However, based on our human studies, we were able to find good success rates after explaining this algorithm.
We wrote a JavaScript program to simulate this strategy. Each digit is represented as an object which lists the value, position, and frequency the digit has occurred.
getHashTable function converts a given set into the above number representation. searchInHash function searches the existing records to check if the digit is represented already, and if so, increments the frequency by 1. Otherwise, a new record is created.
The records are then sorted in ascending order of digit frequency and passed to the makeGuess function which create a valid guess without repeats out of sorted records.
illustration not visible in this excerpt
listing 3: human-friendly strategy implementation
illustration not visible in this excerpt
table 1: frequency chart for human-friendly strategy
5.4 extended strategy
what we observe is that the human strategy tries to figure out a number that is able to eliminate the maximum number of guesses, but in a crude way. leverag- ing computing power, the algorithm can check through all possible permutations to find number(s), that when guessed, are able to reduce the pruned set to only one possibility.
the way it works is that loops through all possible permutations of 3 digit numbers, and assumes they are ‘guesses’. it then checks what response is found if all numbers of the existing pruned set are taken as ‘codes’ and are guessed for using the permutation. the responses are stored and compared to each other. if a permutation is able to act as a unique guess when all the items of the pruned set are taken as codes, it is considered to be a ‘unique permutation’ and the value is used to make the real guess. this strategy ensures that the resulting set is pruned to only one possibility once the unique permutation is taken as a real guess.
to take an example, consider the pruned set {243, 342, 432, 425, 142, 153}. if we check the lowest frequency using the human-friendly strategy, we find that the numbers 1 and 5 occur the least number of times. the primitive approach would try to use those numbers in the guess. however, this pruned set has one guess that will prune the set to one element after the response: 243. evaluating this guess for all possible codes from the pruned set, we see:
- if the code was 243, we’d get< 3b, 0c>
- If the code was 342, we’d get < 1b, 2c>
- If the code was 432, we’d get < 0b, 3c>
- If the code was 425, we’d get < 0b, 2c>
- If the code was 142, we’d get < 1b, 1c>
- If the code was 153, we’d get < 1b, 0c>
Since we’ve arrived at a unique permutation, we’re able to predict the code is based on the response we get. Hence, we get an answer in 2 turns.
The code below uses allUniques, an array of all possible permutations. It runs respondToNum on all members of the set, treating them as the secret code to see the response. It then converts the response into a string and pushes it into an array.
This array is then checked for matches with a simple algorithm. Each ele- ment of the array is compared to each element of the array, and the number of matches is added to a variable. If the value of the variable equals to the length of the array, it means that array has unique elements. Here, we initialize the variable with the value of -(array length) to reach ‘0’ in case of no matches.
If there successfully are no matches, the number is added to an array ‘uniques’, which is returned to the program once all numbers have been evaluated in this way.
illustration not visible in this excerpt
Listing 4: Extended Strategy Implementation
illustration not visible in this excerpt
Table 2: Frequency chart for extended strategy
Average Guesses Required: 5.8930
This algorithm has been used in the implementation of our web application[1].
6 Human Psychology
6.1 Method
We conducted tests with k = 2 and k = 3 with human subjects of varying ages, and changed the amount of information given to them. We began with merely explaining the rules to the subjects, but after Tests C, we explained the human-friendly strategy.
Information refers to the information given to the subject after a guess. To assist showing pruned set in Tests B and D, we used the web application [1].
Note that all games was played mentally, without using any means to record information.
6.1.1 Test Series I: Subject Age 11-15 years
Tests A:
Information: Number of bulls and cows.
The subject chose random numbers, and even numbers they ‘liked’, to begin with. This continued until they reached 2-3 cows, after which their strategy changed to using permutations of existing numbers to figure out bulls. On reaching 2 bulls, they guessed until they found the number.
Guesses required: 20 - 24
Tests B:
Information: Number of bulls and cows; pruned set.
Seeing the pruned set resulted in quicker convergence after reaching around 3 hits. Initial strategy remained the same.
Guesses required: 18 - 21
Tests C: Strategy Explained
Information: Number of bulls and cows
After explaining the human-friendly strategy, subject was able to make better decisions when they reached a smaller set. However, the average number of attempts was similar to average number of attempts in Tests B, perhaps due to the subjects subconsciously coming up with this algorithm by themselves, or having difficulty in visualizing pruned sets.
Guesses required: 17 - 19
Tests D:
Information: Number of bulls and cows; pruned set.
Once the subjects were able to see the pruned set, they were able to come up with better guesses. However, they were not able to do that if the set size was large. Nonetheless, number of guesses required reduced considerably.
Guesses required: 10 - 12
6.1.2 Test Series II: Subject Age 35-45 years
Tests A:
Information: Number of bulls and cows.
The subjects chose random numbers initially, but were able to narrow down results better as they approached larger number of hits.
Guesses required: 15 - 18
Tests B:
Information: Number of bulls and cows; pruned set.
The pruned set allowed the subjects to reach a faster conclusion when set size was smaller. It seemed that they had come up with an algorithm mentally, albeit one that performed poorer than our algorithm.
Guesses required: 13 - 16
Tests C: Strategy Explained
Information: Number of bulls and cows
After explaining the human-friendly strategy, subject made better decisions right from the beginning. They began choosing numbers that did not necessarily occur in the pruned set, but those that sufficiently reduced the set size.
Guesses required: 9 - 12
Tests D:
Information: Number of bulls and cows; pruned set.
Seeing the pruned set allowed the subjects to come to a conclusion much faster. They took more time in evaluating the steps and thinking about the perfect number that would reduce the possibilities to the maximum amount.
Guesses required: 7 - 11
7 Conclusion
A simple derivation and explanation of a strong algorithm for the game is concluded to be possible across age groups. Programming the same strategies has proven to be viable as well.
The primitive algorithm and extended algorithm have a slight but important difference in average case scenario which cannot be ignored. However, a large amount of processing power is needed for the extended approach, due to the NP-hard nature of the problem.
A vast number of approaches and strategies for the game still remain unsolved. Nonetheless, thanks to the brevity of its rules, Bulls and Cows poses a very interesting challenge to recreational mathematicians, computer engineers, and psychologists alike.
[...]
1 Implementation of described algorithms http://projects.namanyayg.com/moo
2 John Francis, Strategies for playing MOO, or “Bulls and Cows”, http://slovesnov.users.sourceforge.net/bullscows/bulls and cows.pdf
3 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., MOO in Multics, http://www.multicians.org/moo-in-multics-1972.pdf
4 Tetsuro Tanaka, An optimal MOO strategy, http://dell.tanaka.ecc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~ktanaka/papers/gpw96.pdf
5 Minimax Algorithm, http://web.stanford.edu/~msirota/soco/minimax.html
Frequently asked questions
What is the Bulls and Cows game?
Bulls & Cows is a two-player code-breaking game. One player (the code-maker) chooses a secret code, and the other player (the code-breaker) attempts to guess the code in as few attempts as possible.
How is Bulls and Cows played?
The code-maker creates a secret code with a specified number of digits (e.g., 3 or 4 digits) without repeating any digit. The code-breaker makes a guess, and the code-maker provides feedback in the form of "bulls" and "cows." A "bull" indicates a correctly guessed digit in the correct position, while a "cow" indicates a correctly guessed digit in the wrong position. The code-breaker uses this feedback to refine their guesses until the secret code is revealed.
What is the objective of the Bulls and Cows game?
The objective is for the code-breaker to guess the code in the fewest number of attempts.
What is the history of the Bulls and Cows game?
Bulls and Cows is a pen-and-paper game, similar to the commercially popular game Mastermind. The first computer program for the game was called MOO, developed at the University of Cambridge. Research has been done on the minimum number of guesses needed to solve the game, which has a mathematical underpinning.
What are the key concepts used in solving Bulls and Cows?
Key concepts include valid permutations (possible codes without repeating digits), pruning sets (eliminating impossible combinations based on guesses), and using Minimax strategies (minimizing the worst-case scenario).
What is a pruned set?
A pruned set is the remaining possible codes after eliminating impossible codes based on the responses to the previous guesses. For example, after guessing 602 and getting a result of <0b, 3c> for the secret code 026, the pruned set is {026, 260}.
What is a human-friendly strategy for Bulls and Cows?
The human-friendly strategy involves these steps: 1. Ordering digits by their frequency of appearance in the current pruned set. 2. Forming the next guess by choosing the digits that occur least frequently in the pruned set.
What is the extended strategy?
The extended strategy leverages computational power. The algorithm checks through all possible permutations to find a number, that when guessed, will reduce the pruned set to only one possibility. It uses all possible permutations and identifies guesses that act as a unique identifier for the code by generating unique responses when compared to all options in the pruned set. This dramatically decreases the number of turns required but needs computational resources.
How was the effectiveness of the algorithms tested?
Human trials were conducted with subjects of varying ages. The amount of information provided to them (number of bulls/cows and/or the pruned set) and explanation of the human-friendly strategy were varied to study the effectiveness of the algorithm.
What were the results of the human trials?
The tests showed that providing the subjects with both the number of bulls and cows and the pruned set, along with an explanation of the human-friendly strategy, resulted in a significant decrease in the average number of guesses required.
What is KWB?
KWB stands for k-way branching, an advanced clustering technique that heuristically obtains a strategy for the worst-case scenario. At each cluster, only the most promising guesses are considered, using the responses given after each guess.
- Quote paper
- Namanyay Goel (Author), Aditya Garg (Author), 2015, A Mathematical Approach to the Simple Bulls and Cows Code Breaking Game, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/312138
