Electrification of automotive has, in recent years, proven to contribute positively to the achievement of climate goals. The measure stems from electrification's capability, reducing carbon dioxide emissions into the environment, thus sustaining the ecosystem. The electrification of the automotive sector has been among countries' goals to counter the effects of climate change. This research delves into the impact of the COVID 19 pandemic on the automotive sector's electrification and its constant goal to ensure the achievement of climate goals. It further seeks to compare the level the electrification had reached before and after the pandemic. This research will undertake several methodological steps in attaining the objectives of the study. These will include surveys, inferential, statistical, and descriptive analysis. The findings will help us determine whether the COVID 19 has affected the automotive sector, its electrification process, and the impact in achieving climatic goals.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Overview
Research Objectives
CHAPTER 2: : LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
The Concept of Electrification in Transport
Electrification and Climate Change
Alternative Fuels and Long-Distance Transportation
Battery Charging, Range, and Cost
The Problem with Electric Vehicles
COVID-19 and a Greener Future
Summary
CHAPTER 3: EE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
Literature Review
Rationale
Research Approach: Semi-systematic
Sample Characteristics
Analysis and Evaluation
Ethical Considerations
CHAPTER 4: R: RESEARCH FINDINGS
CHAPTER 5: E: CONCLUSION
References
Ph.D. Course in "Law, Education and Development"
Name: Christian
Surname: Winkler
Title ofthe Thesis:
Effects ofthe COVID-19 Pandemic on Electrification in the Automotive Sector and the Achievement of Climate
Goals
Scientific-Disciplinary Area:
Multiple scientific-disciplinary areas: It primarily aligns with the fields of Environmental Science, Sustainability
Studies, Transportation Research, and Economics.
ABSTRACT
Abb. in Leseprobe nicht enthalten
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The outbreak ofthe COVID-19, now a global pandemic since 11 March 2020 according to the World Health Organization (WHO), has resulted in millions of infections and fatalities worldwide as authorities struggle to manage the implications of the pandemic (Rubin et al., 2020). The contemporary nature ofthe COVID-19 pandemic means that scholars and experts are only starting to investigate the full societal implications.
Nations and governments have resulted in far-reaching response measures that have often been transformative. Such government actions include mandatory lockdowns, quarantine, travel and movement restrictions, distribution of health and hygiene kits, and close monitoring of constituents (Sovacool, B.K., 2020). Measures such as social distancing, quarantine, evacuations, restrictions on travel, and other "circuit breaker" interventions propagated by governments have led to a significant reduction in the workforce across different economies, causing job losses (Bartik et al., 2020). School closures have hit education systems as consumer demand for manufactured goods and commodities continues to suffer the implications of a global economic downturn.
The economic growth in most nations has been hindered by a decline in financial activity and industrial markets amid a breakdown of international supply chains, border closures, and other critical sectors such as tourism (Andersen et al., 2020). In most economies, public spaces and activities such as sporting facilities, restaurants, museums, and libraries have been shut down. In contrast, other countries such as Sweden have imposed relatively fewer restrictions on human interaction, merely recommending but not obligating individuals to maintain social distance. Even with such exceptional cases, the implications of the COVID-19 pandemic in the short-term have resulted in improved air quality with restricted mobility and industrial activity, reducing greenhouse-gas emissions. Although the measures adopted by governments across the globe in response to the pandemic were not intended to reduce energy consumption, environmental pollution, or climate change, they have had a significant effect on greenhouse-gas emissions and energy consumption (de Oliveira, C.D.M.C. and de Carvalho Wolff, M.G., 2020).
OVERVIEW
As the world continues to devise solutions in lieu of the pandemic's economic and social implications and a rise in environmental awareness, electrification has been widely considered a viable solution for the overdependence on fossil fuels and pollution resulting from road transport. As a consequence, many nations have implemented incentives for electrification of transport services by establishing stringent and over-reaching regulations in the automotive and manufacturing industry in general. Despite the attractiveness of electrification to the concerted efforts to regulate the environmental impact of road transport, the advocacy should be accompanied by the replacement of fossil fuel power plants, without which the result would be an increase in emissions rather than a transition to low-carbon emissions. Therefore, it is worth noting that the adoption of electrification as a sole strategy in the quest to combat climate change would not be effective in achieving emission targets.
Electrification in the automotive sector guided by sustainable development goals and socioeconomic concessions paints a positive picture for a low-carbon transition regardless ofthe state of decarbonization in the energy sector (Bauer et al., 2020). The recent onset ofthe COVID-19 pandemic has sparked discussions, debate, and research into its impact on sustainability. The pandemic's adverse effects offer a chance to observe and analyze the real-time effects of disruption on transition trajectories, such as how a global collapse of the financial sector can affect the transition to sustainability. The pandemic has also had far-reaching effects on the global population, with more than half of the global population under some kind of lockdown by the end of April 2020. The pandemic has also been observed to dictate the desirability of some innovative ideas and sustainability transitions amid heightened concerns over environmental injustices and energy vulnerabilities. The complexities of the subject of climate change, as well as the influence of factors such as politics, leadership traits, and major events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, offer challenges to the fundamental pathways for future research.
This research addresses pertinent issues in the automotive sector with a focus on the implications of COVID-19 on the electrification process in relation to sustainability transitions and the achievement of climate goals. The achievement of climate goals features concerted efforts by governments to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change. The Paris Agreement, for example, is geared towards maintaining warming below 2°C with the aim of limiting warming to 1.5 °C (Kriegler et al., 2018). The multinational endeavor has seen the development of nationally predetermined climate change policies commonly referred to as nationally determined contributions (NDCs). The United States contributes to global greenhouse gas emissions, ranking only second to China, and thus, intervention measures are necessary to manage the risk of dysfunctional climatic implications (Langevin et al., 2019).
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
This research seeks to achieve, among others, the following objectives.
1. To understand what is needed to pursue the electrification ofthe automotive sector successfully.
2. To investigate the relationship between the COVID 19 pandemic and climate change.
3. To assess the progress of electrification before and after the outbreak of the pandemic.
4. To examine the effects of COVID-19 on the transport sector's electrification and the achievement of climate goals.
On a national level, strategies such as the U.S mid-century strategy (MCS) aim at reducing total emissions by 80 percent relative to 2005 levels by the year 2050. Despite the prominence of such national strategies, many nations have expressed concerns over the achievement of determined goals and the capacity of current NDCs to realize the long-term ambitions. Such critical positions expose current NDCs as only capable of slowing down the growth of global greenhouse gas emissions. In support of this concern, Rogeljet al. (2016) acknowledge that although NDCs collectively reduce greenhouse gas emissions, median warming ofup to 3.1 [0]C is forecasted for the year 2100. Also noteworthy is the fact that the Paris Agreement stipulates that the framework and scope of achieving the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions can only be strengthened over time.
Recent insight into the automotive sector paints a gloomy picture for the industry defined by job losses, factory closures, reduced consumer spending, and government interventions mainly due to the emergence ofthe COVID-19 pandemic. Increased risks also mean that investors are reluctant to allocate resources to a depressed sector, hindering investment in the necessary propelling infrastructure for the electrification process. These challenges could not have emerged at a worse time for the automotive sector when several bottlenecks, including a charging capacity gap, tighter regulative restrictions, and energy pricing models, continue influencing the production and uptake of electric mobility solutions (Engel et al., 2018).
The quest for renewable energy solutions could also be understood as a political movement with advocacy for energy democracy (Burke, M.J. and Stephens, J.C., 2018). The impact ofthe COVID-19 pandemic on the automotive sector offers policymakers a chance to accelerate efforts towards electrification, especially in the post-pandemic period. Government interventions since the emergence of the pandemic have, although unintentionally, already demonstrated how concerted national efforts could result in a positive impact on the environment and especially greenhouse gas emissions.
In the U.S, state and federal policies have been adopted in support of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar energy, biofuels, and electric vehicles exemplified by California's Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) mandate and federal tax incentives for further development of the electrification process (Stokes, L.C. and Breetz, H.L., 2018). California'sZEV regulation aims to achieve long-term emissions reduction goals at the state level by requiring manufacturers to offer for sale a predetermined number of environmentally friendly vehicles such as full battery-electric and plug-in hybrid-electric vehicles. Therefore, it would be beneficial to investigate the relationship between political power and renewable energy as a basis for understanding the influence of the political context on the electrification process.
The rise in global awareness about the adverse impact of human activity on the environment coupled with the automotive sector's contribution to global emissions has placed the industry on a tight rope attracting the attention of environmental and public-interest groups. These groups and society have adopted new attitudes and approaches to reduce the level of emissions, a driver of increased consumer demand for electric vehicles in the period before the COVID-19 pandemic. Environmental awareness and commitment to sustainability have become part of the factors influencing investment decisions pushing organizations to adopt sustainability as a core business agenda. The strategic importance of sustainability for organizations is emphasized in a recent report by the Capgemini Research Institute, which provides key sector insight such as most firms claim to have a comprehensive sustainability strategy; implementation ofsustainability is mostlyfragmented and in need ofadditional investment; although many firms have an electric vehicle plan, not all consider this as part of their sustainability strategy; and most firms are lagging in their sustainability strategy implementation (Capgemini Research Institute, 2020).
The financial world has also reacted to change in attitudes by considering sustainability as part of their risk assessment for target organizations, and this could affect access to finance in the automotive sector, especially in a period when such firms need financial infusions to recover from the losses accrued over the economic downturn caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Notable contributions to the efforts to maintain global warming below the 2[0]C mark have also come from manufacturers exemplified by Toyota's "Environmental Challenge 2050" (Takahashi et al., 2018), which seeks to not only attain the target by zero carbon emissions but also encourage similar initiatives that have a positive impact to the world we live in. Other sustainability efforts from the organization include establishing an environmental management system, managing chemical substances, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
The automotive industry has reacted to pertinent environmental issues such as CO2 emissions, creations of waste, and dependence on oil and oil products by adopting sustainability strategies and innovative products that address these very issues. Automotive manufacturers demonstrate the possibility of wide application and acceptance of sustainable practices that are beneficial to the environment and place such companies in a favorable strategic position. The shift towards renewable energy is also challenging the conventional energy industry in terms of ownership composition, with new market entrants likely to emerge. These startups are largely driven by the need for sustainability in business practices and daily living. One such Swedish startup, Einride, has been recognized for its efforts in providing innovative solutions in the transport sector (Sprei, F., 2018). The organization views transport as a service by combining self-drive, connected, and EVs with the ride-sharing market. The company is also actively engaged in a collaborative effort with other Swedish companies to move towards zero emissions in the logistics sector.
Government efforts such as California's ZEV and Toyota's sustainability agenda are fuelled by the automotive industry's shift from the internal combustion engine whose tail-pipe emissions are the largest contributor to greenhouse gas across the useful life of a car. Although manufacturers have made in-trays into fuel efficiency leading to a reduction in car emissions, the surge in consumer demand for motor vehicles has rendered such efforts ineffective in realizing set warming levels and zero carbon emissions. This suggests that electrification is a more viable solution for car manufacturers since electric vehicles are powered by renewable energy with zero emissions. In the U.S, total revenues from the Car and Automobile Manufacturing sector have been forecasted to reduce by 38.9% as a direct implication of the expected economic constraints brought about by the COVID-19 outbreak (Klier, T. and Rubenstein, J., 2020) as the industry prepares for reduced profitability during the year.
The depressed economic activity is also expected to lower interest rates as a stimulus package for the revival of the automotive industry with respect to the containment of the coronavirus. Decreased human activity during the pandemic has led to decreased energy demand, evident in an improvement in the global primary energy intensity, which is yet to attain the set target of 2.6 percent. Much of this improvement has been attributed to larger transport sector improvements among other sectors such as freight, service, and residential sectors.
Despite various endeavors in the automotive sector involving key stakeholders such as regulators, industry players, and social movements to manage the negative impacts of climate change, the industry has been hit hard by the COVID-19 pandemic whose full societal implications have not been predicted yet. Evidence ofthe implications ofthe pandemic can be seen in the short-term effects characterized by a breakdown ofthe global supply chain resulting in missing raw material in factories meaning that manufactures are unable to satisfy the existing consumer demand for EVs (Kanda, W. and Kivimaa, P., 2020).
Increased uncertainty during the pandemic has also led to changing consumer behavior defined by individuals and households' stricter spending habits as investors avoiding investing in a depressed car and automotive manufacturing industry. The rapid decrease in demand for EVs can thus be seen as a short-term market reaction to the implications ofthe COVID-19 pandemic on a global scale. The reduced market activity in the automotive and transport sector is an industry paradox since it has also resulted in cleaner air and reduced emissions even in the most polluted cities and regions such as China as the industry continues to grapple with decreased spending, increased unemployment, poor profitability, and other challenges of the contemporary market environment (Sjoberg, K., 2020). As the world's largest automotive market, the electrification of China's road transport industry may deliver significant insight for an international energy revolution in mobility. India instituted a nationwide lockdown extending over 30 days amid the COVID-19 pandemic, which was followed by a drastic change in pollution levels across most cities (Mahato, S., Pal, S. and Ghosh, K.G., 2020). The environmental improvements have led to a shift in global perspectives on the need to suppress fuel reliant vehicles' production to maintain the emission levels at the rates achieved in most polluted cities with the long-term goal of reaching desirable warming targets.
The future of mobility must, therefore involve solutions such as the electrification of the automotive sector. Acknowledging the challenges in altering consumer preferences for fuel-powered vehicles, massive electrification in the automotive sector should be undertaken complemented by renewed efforts for tighter emission restrictions post-pandemic and industry-wide commitment to sustainability throughout the value chain. Before the onset of the global pandemic, EVs experience a decade of favorable growth with sales growing by over 60 percent annually before the introduction of strict regulative policies in China and -now-the COVID-19 pandemic, which has changed the landscape of passenger car sales across most international and domestic markets. Although it is difficult to estimate future trends in the electrification process, the attainment of total revenues above 2.2 million in 2019 translates to a larger global car market share.
Another emerging field in the automotive industry is the development of self-drive cars with possible consolidations as stakeholders position themselves for the future of mobility. Although the economic downturn is most likely to hinder the rate of technological advancements, the pandemic will also influence how mobility is executed amid advocacy for social distancing. Organizations in the automotive sector should thus prepare adequately for the shifting landscape subject to the pandemic's longevity and the full societal impacts that are yet to be established. An analysis of the political, technological, competitive, and advancements with advanced batteries will lead to the widespread adoption of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) (Schulz, A., 2020).
As some parts of the world attempt to ease the restrictions imposed in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, normalcy is expected to return, albeit subject to the social, political, and economic policies adopted post-pandemic. Thus, it is only natural that future research should focus on what kind of recovery is expected in terms of sustainability. Despite the environmental soundness during government- imposed restrictions, China's pollution levels are on an upward trend surpassing pre-pandemic levels by the end of May 2020. This outcome brings in the question of whether a green recovery is indeed guaranteed as economic stimulus programs are disseminated in support ofthe business environment.
Historically, short-term survival strategies in support of businesses have resulted in a shift to sustainable practices, especially in business and societal improvement in terms of jobs and equitable opportunities. The economic downturn of 2008 affected many economies and was defined by unpredictability and lengthiness, lasting over 18 months. The crisis was then followed by the climate crisis, which is poised as an even bigger global challenge with adverse long-term implications. A failure to alter the current trends in CO2 emissions will likely result in warming levels above 3.5 [0]C. Thus there is a need to replace fossil fuel reliant mobility with alternatives such as EVs as part of the decarbonization efforts.
Accordingto a recent report by the United Nations Environmental Program, unsustainable production and consumption are defined by, among other factors, lifestyle choices and investment in environmentally degrading activities (Chiu, A.S., Aviso, K.B., Baquillas, J. and Tan, R.R., 2020). The ramifications of such practices range from carbon-intensive economies, depletion of natural resources, and environmental hazards and illnesses. The automotive industry is vital to the lifestyles adopted in most developed countries with emerging markets such as Africa and Asia likely to extend the reliance on the sector to drive economic activity. By developing a deeper understanding of people's lifestyles, car and automotive manufacturers have aligned their strategies to the needs and values, which has enabled the development of innovative products and services.
The mobility landscape is on a transformative path that places electrification at the center of the decarbonization ofthe automotive industry. Numerous gains have been made during much ofthe COVID-19 pandemic period towards reducing emissions, but a lot has to be done to sustain and develop the sustainability agenda post-pandemic. Although electrification stands out as a significant contribution to global decarbonization, it is ineffective in its current state due to challenges in changing consumer perspectives and other political and economic factors. Conclusively, the current state of reforms aimed at producing and selling more EVs as well as other efforts geared towards zero emissions is inadequate to guarantee the achievement of climatic goals of warming below 1.5[0]C.
CHAPTER 2: : LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
This section sets apart the research's key elements by evaluating literature based on climate change, electrification in the motor vehicle industry, the implications of the COVID 19 pandemic, and their interrelationship. Several aspects ofthe electrification process are evaluated, including the evolution of the concept of electrification in the automotive industry and the variations of electric vehicle models. The transport sector's sustainability concerns are also investigated, including the generation of power for use in recharging and different forms of emissions produced by the transport sector.
This review also investigates the main challenges facing the electrification process, including various complexities of the batteries vital to the switch from ICEVs to EVs. The research further investigates the current advancements in battery pack technology and how key stakeholders address the key challenges in achieving zero-emissions in the transport sector. This literature review also explores the environmental conservation measures undertaken under the theme of climatic control and the regulation of carbon emissions in the four major modes of transport with a view of highlighting the major policies driving the decarbonization agenda.
The main aim of this literal evaluation is to form a deeper understanding of the fundamental concepts involved in the electrification process, the state of electrification given the occurrence of the COVID-19 pandemic, recent advancements in the efforts towards zero emissions, and the correlation between the electrification of motor vehicles and climate change.
Before embarking on a study of the existing literature focused on the current developments in the sustainability of the transport sector, it would be important to highlight the key elements mediating the relationship between mobility and the environment. Mobility has emerged as a great enabler of economic growth by facilitating goods, services, and people. As economic activities expand, the reliance on transport systems is also accelerated. This expansion is however, tracked by increased pollution drawing in the question of whether mobility can be sustainable. There is a need to develop reliable, accessible, affordable, and sustainable transport systems to enhance mobility. The existing transport system is highly dependent on fossil fuels as the chief source of energy, and the exhaustible nature of fossil only means that transport systems are not sustainable.
In its current state, the transport system is harmful to the environment contributing nearly a third of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The opportunity could lie in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), which utilize electricity as their energy source. Fathabadi, H. (2018) proposes a PHEV model in which the internal combustion engine can be replaced by a photovoltaic (PV) module on the roof of the vehicle and a small wind turbine placed in front of the vehicle. The combination of a battery, PV, and wind power only sets the stage of what is possible to power vehicles using renewable sources of energy. The energy supply sector consists mainly offossil fuels, nuclear, wind, solar, and hydrogen energy, with an increase in population growth likely to result in increased energy demand (Uyar, T. S., & Be§ikci, D., 2017). These vehicles use the electricity availed through the grid. If they can constitute a portion of the mobility sector, they could play a significant role in reducing the transport sector's contribution to global GHG emissions.
It is no doubt that mobility is on the verge of transformation, and the future seems to be electric. This transformation is accelerated by several factors, including the need to make progress on climate change mitigation measures and concerns about air quality in modern cities across the globe. There have also been increasing demands for CO2 emissions and other pollutant regulation with bodies such as the European Union and other global public authorities instituting stringent regulations (Saint Akadiri et al., 2019). The dependence on fossil fuels is also criticized with advocacy for more sustainable practices such as the use of renewable energy sources.
Political advocacy is also at the forefront of the charge towards innovative solutions driven by competing interests from the U.S, Asia, and European nations for global technological leadership. This competitive environment is also rife in motor vehicle manufacturing firms. It has been most beneficial to the industrythrough significant progress in major areas such as the electric motor, battery technology, energy consumption, power electronics, and overall efficiency ofthe electric powertrain (Hayes, J. G., & Goodarzi, G. A., 2018). The global economic environment is also characteristically moving towards the development of socially conscious products largely driven by changes in consumer behavior. As the consumer market becomes more aware of the transport sector's environmental impacts, customers can be expected to prefer environment-friendly products such as electric vehicles.
The global economic landscape has also contributed to the electrification process following public incentives to support the acceptance of electric vehicles. This has been supported by growth in charging infrastructure, which has traditionally impeded electric vehicles' take-up (Ajanovic, A., & Haas, R., 2016). Mobility in today's world has become more individualized, leading to a decrease in integrated services in the transport sector. The automotive industry has also made efforts to drive up the uptake of electric vehicles through the development of attractive products such as vehicle leasing services and ride-sharing options powered by renewable energy. These innovative solutions are defined by a need to offering mobility as a service through encouraging car sharing and ride-sharing business models.
Individualized mobility is based on asset ownership and can pose a great challenge if an upsurge follows the increased need for transport amid a growing global population in demand for cars. Ecological awareness is a defining characteristic of modern society and, as such, the choice of transportation, a phenomenon that has ignited more interest in the satisfaction of mobility needs rather than the possession of a physical asset (Kuntzky, K., Wittke, S., & Herrmann, C., 2013). The consumers' quest for this mobility function only serves to drive up demand for innovative mobility products such as ridesharing.
Technological advancement has also contributed to the adoption of new mobility concepts largely driven by consumer preferences, emphasizing consumer markets' role in shaping electric vehicle demand. To satisfy consumer demand, automotive manufacturers combine mobility-enabling products such as electric cars and services such as ride-sharing (Almeida, M., 2020). This integrative combination can be understood as a Product Service System (PSS) approach, which suggests the provision of a mobility function to the customer through a range of products and service combinations.
Research on the environmental significance of such a shift from traditional approaches where manufacturers focused more on the production of vehicles for sale to individual owners suggests that car-sharing services reduce environmental degradation levels (Kuntzky, K., Wittke, S., & Herrmann, C., 2013). Yu et al. (2017) suggest that engaging innovative mobility products such as ride-sharing could effectively reduce the demand for cars for personal use, curbing the challenge of traffic jams in major cities in China. In addition to supporting the shift from personal transportation preferences towards mobility services, ride-sharing has the potential to contribute to sustainable energy savings in the short term and reduce emissions in the long-term, subject to the adoption of these services as a replacement to physically owned assets.
The superior energy-saving capabilities of electric vehicles can also enhance product-service systems' environmental friendliness contributing to overall sustainability goals. Promoting the adoption of electric vehicles in ride-sharing services coupled with the relatively sustainable use of electric energy can lead to more efficiency, increasing the environmental benefits of ride-sharing (Taiebat, M., & Xu, M., 2019). Compared to 2016 levels of fuel-related energy consumption and emissions by ride-sharing vehicles, the maximum effects ofthe environmental benefits of ride-sharing were estimated at 67% of energy savings and 57% of C02 emission reductions (Yu et al., 2017). Thus, the electrification process would be beneficial to the overall effectiveness of product-service systems, which would contribute to energy sustainability efforts in the transport sector.
The integration of electric vehicles in the autonomous vehicles market could also help promote the adoption of EVs while enhancing energy savings. The modern consumer market has adopted new preferences for mobility services such as ride-hailing services. A combination of advanced user experience and high vehicle utilization levels can be achieved through creating autonomous electric vehicles in the ride-hailing product offerings. Recent advances by a leading electric car manufacturer, Tesla, have seen the installation of a network of recharging infrastructure in a bid to promote the use of EVs. The company boasts of a network of more than two thousand charging stations, a prerequisite for increasing the acceptance of EVs as it scales up the availability of charging stations across the United States.
While the ride-hailing sector has the potential of acting as the initial market for autonomous electric vehicles, there is a need to develop extensive and reliable recharging infrastructure without which such a transformation would be attainable due to lack of practicability. The promotion of EVs among ride-hailing service providers should thus consider the need to estimate the demand for charging infrastructure in advance (Zhang et al., 2020) to improve the chances of leading a transformation into sustainable energy utilization through AEV ride-hailing services. Increased use of ride-hailing services that feature autonomous cars reliant on electric energy can thus help achieve better sustainability practices in the transport sector. This combination can eventually lead to the replacement of individualized transport given the inherent risk of its convenience and the low cost of shared AVs (SAVs) driving market preference from public transport systems.
SAVs might not completely replace public transport. Digital technology has enabled hybrid modular transport systems (MTS) that functions as a rapid transit system (Gecchelin, T., & Webb, J., 2019). The MTS has taken the form of a bus and is mostly utilized as a feeder system for mass transit systems and a low density urban dynamic ride-sharing system (DRS) in other instances. The benefits of providing progressive ride-sharing services could range from traditional vehicle ownership approaches, reduced travel costs, reduced SAV fleet size, and emissions (Golbabaei, F., Yigitcanlar, T., & Bunker, J., 2020). Although research on the benefits of combining ride-sharing services and smart urban mobility systems such as SAVs is scanty, the existing literature suggests that such an integration would promote sustainability and social equity in the transportation industry (Bauer, et al., 2020). Favorable environmental outcomes could also be promoted through the electrification of SAVs with the provision of renewable charging infrastructure, encouraging their adoption. There is, therefore, a need to integrate urban and transport policies to the efficiency of urban mobility outcomes with these efforts likely to promote the electrification process in the automotive industry.
The transformation to renewable energy consumption in the transport sector is inevitable, given the growing preference for ecologically conscious products and services. The electrification process has been aided by several events, and movements in the automotive industry. The existing literature identifies a diverse range of elements that have to major developments in the electrification process. Some of these elements include competing for national interests by major economies in the US, Asia, and Europe as industries strive to gain a competitive advantage, and recent advances in the electric motor, battery technology, powertrain efficiency, and power electronics. The expansion of recharging infrastructure and growing public support for the adoption of EVs has also contributed to the electrification agenda providing new opportunities for new market players offering new EV designs and mobility services. The ever-changing technological landscape has also aided the electrification process through the growing potential of connectivity and automation.
Overall, the potential for electric vehicles to contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and the adverse effects of unfavorable environmental factors on human health is dependent on several factors, including the type of electric vehicle, the main source of energy, charging infrastructure, existing climatic conditions, regulatory policies, driving conditions, and changing supplier and consumer patterns (Requia, et al., 2018). Several markets exist for EVs, and new market entrants have a chance of satisfying the growing demand for electric powered vehicles through providing innovative technological solutions to the existing challenges to the electrification process in the automotive sector.
THE CONCEPT OF ELECTRIFICATION IN TRANSPORT
The concept of electrification is transport envisions the use of more electrical energy in propulsion and non-propulsion loads in vehicles. The concept is driven by the limitations of the internal combustion engine (ICE), which can hardly achieve efficiency above thirty percent. Electric motors' ability to attain efficiency levels above ninety percent highlight the promotion of electrical systems in vehicles. Mechanical systems are also relatively slower compared to electrical systems, which offer more control. The ICE is also heavily dependent on fossil fuels, while electrical energy can be generated from wind and solar, among other renewable energy sources.
Electrification in the automotive industry is not a new phenomenon. In the early 20th century, electric cars gained momentum leading to the development of hybrid models such as the Lohner-Porsche Mixte, which combined electric energy and a petroleum-powered engine Fathy, H. K. (2018). The discovery of oil in the 1920s led to greater availability of filling stations and reduced mobility costs, encouraging the adoption of fuel-powered cars to the detriment of electric cars. It was not until the 1990s that renewed interest in electric cars was witnessed. Following the institution of new regulations, vehicle manufacturers sought to develop electric cars to satisfy the regulatory framework. Long after the conception of electrical systems in the motor vehicle industry, the first mass-produced hybrid vehicle was introduced by Toyota. This car named the Prius, was released in 2000, increasing the awareness of electric vehicles across the globe.
Two decades later, leading economies and automakers have developed infrastructure to enable the acceptance and uptake of EVs with a reduction in battery costs, electric vehicles have become available to customers. The modern consumer market is characterized by a multitude of electric vehicle options, including plug-in hybrids, all-electric models, electric autonomous vehicles, and smart urban mobility systems such as electric scooters. The future appears bright for electric vehicles, with authorities such as the US department of energy estimating that EVs' transition can reduce CO2 emissions by up to twenty percent.
The prominence oftransportation electrification highlights a paradigm shifttowards more sustainable transport systems. The electrification process involves the use of an energy-efficient power train system that is powered by renewable sources. The shift from fossil fuels to the chief energy source in transport systems has been investigated by several literal sources focusing on the road, water, rail, and aeronautic transport.
The existing research suggests that the electrification process occurs at varying degrees in the four modes of transport. In road transport, for instance, fully-electric vehicles are already available as the automotive industry strives to satisfy consumer demand for EVs. However, cost and reliability concerns continue impeding the electrification of long-distance trucks and coaches, with the field remaining underexplored. Literal evidence also points towards the adoption of alternative burning fuels such as biofuels and hydrogen with an increasing use of hybrid propulsion in ships. The quest for zero-emission targets in water transport is dependent on the size of the vessel and distance of travel.
An expansive biofuels deployment is one progressive action that could be taken to minimize greenhouse gas emissions, as negotiated in the Paris Agreement (Mortensen et al., 2020). It is clear that biofuels cannot adequately replace fossil fuels by itself. In order to avoid biofuels and land restrictions becoming a barrier to renewable energy sources, other technologies and strategies are required for fossil energy displacement.
While most railway systems in the developed economies are already electrified, the aeronautical field is yet to adopt electric systems beyond ground movement and short-range light aircraft. There is, therefore a need to improve the existing electrical systems and seek innovative solutions that contribute to the sustainability efforts through reduced pollutant and GHG emissions. With the innovations already achieved in road transport, electrification is likely to expand into the other modes of transport since allelectric systems are based on the same concept. The fundamental concept of EVs involves the design of the powertrain, its components, and electrical systems that can be combined to offer high performance, increased reliability, low transport costs, and high-efficiency levels.
The concept of electrification in the transport sector has been supported by the regulatory framework with calls for higher efficiency standards across the globe. The European Union, for instance, identifies transport sector electrification as an essential aspect in the achievement of decarbonization and energy sustainability. The EU also estimates that that the transport sector contributes 25 % of the regional CO2 emissions. Despite the potential for greater energy efficiency through the use of renewable energy sources in the transport sector, CO2 emission reduction depends on the advancement of parallel technology choices such as biofuels and the degree of hybridization as well as the energy mix of the grid. Electric car batteries can also help better utilize renewable sources such as wind and solar energy, which can be fluctuating at times by temporarily storing energy.
Electrification in the transport sector has brought about new approaches to the quest for sustainable energy consumption. The concept has developed over the years since its introduction to automotive manufacturing. Although once overshadowed by the convenience of using fuel-powered internal combustion engines, the concept of electrification has come of age largely attributable to technological advancements. As global competition intensifies, there is a high likelihood of more mobility advancements based on electric models as more customers switch their preferences from ICE to EVs. Electrical systems generally contribute to the transition into low carbon emissions, and thus all transport sectors need to aid in this transition subject to their technological and economic potential.
The potential to reduce the transport sector's contribution to global emission levels is rife given the investment of governments and automotive makers in the promotion of EVs in the road, rail, air, and water transport. Of the four modes of transport, electrification of road transport has gained the most traction. It could be well in the path to reduce the transport sector's average contribution to global carbon emissions. The other sectors should also strive to create innovative solutions to address the lack of maturity of energy storage technologies to enable electrification, especially in water and aeronautic movement. Conclusively, the concept of electrification can be understood as a zero-emission technology with far-reaching environmental benefits and cost savings in the transportation sector.
Research by Shaukat et al. (2018) outlines different categories of EVs such as the Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV), Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV), Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV), and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV). These categories are based on the energy converter used to power the vehicles, the charging process, and the power source. There are many similarities between HEVs and ICEVs, with differences occurring due to the former's electric motor and battery components. For HEVs, the onboard battery can be charged by the ICE or through regenerative braking. HEVs are usually powered by the battery at lower speeds, with the ICE being the favorite at higher speeds. These vehicles do not, therefore rely on EV charging stations and thus do not have an implication on the power grid. Nour et al. (2020) identify several subcategories of HEVs with respect to their varying structures. These subcategories include series, parallel, mild, and complex HEVs.
A Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) is an advancement ofthe HEV with shared characteristics such as charging through regenerative braking and by the ICE. However, this type of EV is distinguished since it can also be charged from the power grid, has a smaller ICE compared to HEVs, a larger electric motor powered by larger battery capacity. The PHEV, therefore, has a greater electric range compared to an HEV. This type can also run on full-electric mode, therefore producing zero emissions.
The third category of EVs is the Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV). The potential for wide acceptance of the BEV is huge and can be accelerated through battery technology developments and significant battery cost reductions. A BEV typically contains an electric motor only, meaning that its driving range and performance is dependent on the battery capacity. BEVs, therefore, produce fewer emissions when compared to HEVs and PHEVs. They are therefore more suitable for city traffic.
The operation ofthe BEV has also been outlined in Nour et al. (2020). The vehicles can be charged from the power distribution system or through regenerative braking, where the EM assumes the role of a generator enabled by a bidirectional DC/AC converter. Due to their reliance on the charging infrastructure, BEVs are hindered by the long charging periods required and inherent weaknesses in the existing charging infrastructure. However, this core challenge can be overcome through advancements in battery technology, which can extend the driving range, hence reducing instances when the vehicle should be charged. Furthermore, EV manufacturers have also proposed battery swapping as a measure to address the time taken to charge BEVs and concerns over their limited driving range.
Battery swapping refers to the replacement of empty batteries with fully charged batteries rather than waiting for a full recharge. One of BEVs' main advantages over all other types of EVs is their abilityto provide electrical services. However, these vehicles feature a large battery capacity and can therefore result in unfavorable outcomes for the power distribution system when the charging process is not adequately managed.
On the other hand, a Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) is particularly similar to the BEV but uses a fuel cell rather than a battery pack. The vehicle's motor is powered by the fuel cells, which primarily convert hydrogen gas chemical energy to electric energy. The main energy source is hydrogen, which can be extracted from water electrolysis or natural gas. This type of EV does not, therefore, have an impact on the power distribution network since most models do not feature an on-board battery; hence no charging is required.
ELECTRIFICATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE
The presiding theme for the electrification process is the potential to achieve better air quality, reduce energy consumption, and reduce GHG emissions. In the transport sector, electricity allows for the utilization of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar in powering vehicles. Electricity also allows the use of vehicle batteries as temporary storage systems for renewable sources. The demand for electric mobility is on the rise. It extends beyond ecological protection to its ability to operate at zero emissions, improving the air quality in major cities and reducing noise pollution.
Before reviewing EVs' power generation requirements, it would be important to understand the basic electrical system concept. The fundamental electrical system consists of four major components, namely, generation, transmission, distribution, and retail. During generation, electricity is produced in large quantities at power plants and then fed into a national or regional grid system. The electricity is then transmitted at high voltages over long distances to the point of use, which could be a city or town. This paves the way for the distribution phase, where power is sent to users such as domestic homes and factories. The retail phase measures power consumption and bills customers.
Although there is an abundance of research on the power train featured in electric vehicles, there is a lack of reference to the source of energy used to charge EVs and the emissions involved during this power generation. The United States Department of Energy estimated that the country's energy generation relies heavily on natural gas and coal. The continued use of such non-renewable energy sources increases the amount of emissions. The growing interest in renewable energy generation is evident with a rise from 13.2 % in 2012 to 34% in 2016 following greater investments in nuclear, wind, solar, hydro, and biofuel energy (Schmid, A., 2017). The country's energy authority also highlights the potential to increase renewable energy generation using the vastness in the West of the country for the deployment of solar panels and wind turbine farms.
Although electric cars use the energy generated from mostly non-renewable sources, their potential to produce lower emissions sets them apart from fuel-powered vehicles. Fully electric vehicles produce 4,587 pounds of CO2, while hybrids, fuel-powered, and plug-in hybrids produce 23,885 pounds of CO2 annually (Eilbert, et al., 2017). These statistics relate to the emissions produced during EV charging, but a comprehensive estimate would entail emissions produced during the manufacturing process, grid losses, and fuel consumption at higher supply chain levels.
Despite the significantly low levels of emissions produced by electric cars, there is a need to produce more renewable energy to truly achieve "zero emission" levels through fully electric vehicles. Vehicle emissions can be grouped into two major categories, namely air pollutants and greenhouse gases. Air pollutants are closely associated with smog, health hazards, and haze, while GHGs constitute elements such as CO2 and methane. The analysis of emissions produced by vehicles that can take a direct evaluation approach as well as a well-to-wheel basis (Woo, J., Choi, H., & Ahn, J., 2017). Although challenging, such an analysis would help evaluate EVs' environmental footprint by mapping out all areas involved in the production and use of electric vehicles.
Internal combustion engines produce direct emissions from the tail-pipe, during fueling, and through evaporation from the fuel system. On the other hand, electric vehicles produce zero direct emissions. Since plug-in hybrid electric vehicles combine the use of a battery system and an on-board fuel engine, they can produce direct emissions from the tail-pipe as well as through evaporation (Ehrenberger et al., 2019). Users of PHEVs, however, have the option of running on full-electric mode though emissions through evaporation would persist. The on-board engine makes PHEVs less "emissionfree" than full-electric cars but more efficient than conventional cars. Based on these findings, the claim of "zero-emission" capabilities of EVs is perhaps not entirely correct.
The well-to-wheel approach combines all emissions involved in the production, processing, distribution, and use of energy (Woo, J., Choi, H., & Ahn, J., 2017). Before fuel can be used in an internal combustion engine, the processes of petroleum extraction, refining, distributing, and use in engines all produce emissions. Although electricity is considered a renewable energy source suggesting fewer emissions, it is produced in power plants that use natural gas and coal to feed the grid system. Furthermore, the energy consumed by power plants is extracted, processed, and distributed, adding to the emissions produced before electricity can be distributed for use as a "clean" energy source.
Emissions from the Transport Sector
Comparing the environmental implication of conventional vehicles and electric vehicles, Ellingsen, L. A. W., Singh, B., & Strpmman, A. H., (2016) acknowledges that although the production phase of EVs in more intensive, they make up for this shortcoming in the use phase. The contemporary nature of EVs means that the implementation of efficient power systems is still in the developmental stage with short-term and long-term possibilities to minimize their lifecycle GHG emissions (Qiao et al., 2019). Short-term efforts should thus focus on technological improvements and the intensive production process with the opportunity to achieve impact reductions as a long-term objective. The development of electric mobility systems should thus seek an ideal combination of battery size and recharging infrastructure to enhance EVs' impact on climate control.
It is estimated that the annual levels of emissions produced by the transport sector, including carbon monoxide (CO), ammonia (NH3), nitrogen oxides (NOX), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), will decrease by 2050 in the United States. Reduced emissions from road transport are expected to drive the decrease in gaseous emissions supplemented by similar efforts in non-road engines (Campbell et al., 2018). Dang, H. A., & Trinh, T. A. (2020) offers one of the few studies on the cross-national impacts of COVID-19 on air pollution. The study offers a better understanding of response measures' unintended benefits against the global pandemic on air quality. Most of the literature reviewed focuses more on the pandemic's economic and social impacts with the consensus that the pandemic is not just a health concern but is a causal element of the global financial downturn.
Reduced mobility during the global pandemic has been identified as a potential avenue for reducing air pollution. On a global scale, the pandemic has had heterogeneous impacts on different economies ranging from disruption of trade and manufacturing to the level of air pollution (Mahato, S., Pal, S., and Ghosh, K.G., 2020). Government interventions and personal health concerns that have led to the reduction in mobility are only short-term measures. They can be expected to rise as the global economy recovers from the pandemic. Although the mobility restrictions only appear to improve air quality in the short-term, a reduction in non-essential travel can help improve global air quality.
The 2019 European Environment Agency (EEA) report on air quality highlights the transport sector's contribution to total air pollutants' total emissions such as CO, NOX, P10, and P2.5 (Iriti et al., 2020). Although Europe has experienced a reduction in emissions from the transport sector, the rate of reduction has been relatively lower than expected. All modes of transport have reduced their emission of air pollutants since 1990 with the exception of waterborne transport, which has witnessed an increase in nitrogen oxide emissions, and air transport, which has only managed to reduce non-methane volatile organic compounds.
The contribution of the transport sector to air pollution is a major concern in Europe. European Union member states have developed policies addressing transport-related pollution through domestic and regional air quality management plans. These plans highlight the significance of air pollution in Europe as a major health concern. The measures undertaken in Europe in a bid to address the issue of air pollution include the creation of low-emission zones and congestion charges across major European cities. These measures are concentrated in areas where air pollution is most rampant, especially as a consequence of mobility.
The scale of measures undertaken under the European air quality management strategies is founded in legal mechanisms that set out emission targets at local and regional levels. Some of the legal channels explored include fuel quality controls, emission standards such as the Euro emissions standard, and national emission limits. Such legal requirements suppress the use of high emission mobility choices such as diesel vehicles, which exceed the set Euro emissions standard (Grigoratos et al., 2019). Since this standard provides limitations on the acceptable exhaust emissions at the point of sale, they can effectively manage the emission of NOx, which is prominent in diesel passenger cars and vans. Policies aimed at improving air quality also account for other forms of emissions produced by road transport.
Besides direct exhaust emissions characteristic of internal combustion engines, the European standards consider evaporation emissions and particulate matter (PM) from tires, brakes, and road abrasion.
The global pandemic has had varying impacts in Europe and across the globe. The most notable ofthese impacts on the environment have been a reduction in noise pollution levels, decreased GHG emissions, especially from the transport sector, and general improvements in air quality. Despite the pandemic being a health hazard, it has been accompanied by other negative impacts such as the increased use of single-use plastics. Much like other parts of the world, the focus on achieving long-term environmental goals lies in developing sustainable practices as the world recovers from the COVID-19 pandemic.
Governments' collective effortto address the impacts oftransport-related emissions demonstrates the importance of maintaining favorable air quality to avoid the consequences of poor air quality. The rise in the use of EVs offers European cities an opportunity to achieve the Euro emissions standard while contributing to the improvement of air quality (Grigoratos et al., 2019). The long-term environmental benefits of electrification in the transport sector can be realized when the shift to renewable energy utilization is supplemented by a reduction in emissions produced during power generation, especially in urban regions.
The electrification process's real environmental benefits can be seen to resultfrom the adoption of renewable energy sources not just in the EVs but throughout the power generation and distribution channel. The most probable source of renewable energy for use in such an undertaking would be electricity, which can be easily distributed through the national grid system. The adoption of electricity as an appropriate energy source for the transport sector fits into the electrification process, making EVs attractive since they offer more efficient use of energy in comparison to ICE models. Electric vehicles' power utilization infrastructure is of great importance given the power mix involved during the recharging process.
The culmination of multinational discussions focused on developing global objectives to address the implications of climate change was the COP21 UN Climate Change Conference of 2015, which led to the adoption of legally-binding universal climate agreements. Following the Paris agreement, the rise in global temperatures was to be maintained below 2[0]C above pre-industrial levels (Rhodes, C. J., 2016). Governments also agreed to enhance the adaptation of the set climatic goals across the globe, meaning that developing nations would offer support for developing member states.
Since then, the goal has been to limit the rise in global temperatures below 1.50C above preindustrial levels (Kinley, R., 2017). The shift from fossil fuel reliance in the generations and distribution of power combined with the electrification of major modes of transport is essential in reducing GHG emissions. Electrification of the automotive industry offers the EU and other regional bodies the chance to significantly reduce CO2 emissions produced by cars, although policies to guide this shift should also consider all aspects involved before electricity can be utilized in EVs.
ALTERNATIVE FUELS AND LONG-DISTANCE TRANSPORTATION
The scope of measures adopted to encourage the use of renewable energy across the four modes of transport includes the advocacy for the use of alternative fuels. Besides the environmental benefits of adopting alternative fuels, new market opportunities driven by the investment in renewable energy could help in efforts towards the economic recovery post-pandemic. The interest in alternative fuels is also concerned about the efficiency of ethanol, methanol, natural gas, dimethyl ether (DME), biodiesel, and polyoxymethylene dimethyl ethers (PODEn). Despite the diversity of alternative fuels, literature does not provide a single solution to the energy sector's sustainability problem. Most of the research explored suggests an integrative approach that features a mix of energy options such as electricity, hydrogen, and biofuels to reduce emissions across the four main modes of transport. Adopting these alternative fuels could also be extended to the power generation and distribution phases, hence contributing significantly to the long-term global sustainability goals.
It is important to acknowledge that alternatives do not necessarily mean an end to the use of fossil fuels. There are several categories of alternative fuels, including fossil, renewable, gaseous, and liquid alternative fuels. Natural gas is one of the gaseous fuels and has the potential to be applied in the transport sector due to its availability, established distribution channel, and "clean" fuel properties.
Compressed natural gas (CNG) has emerged as one ofthe leading fuel alternatives due to its superior efficiency levels when compared to fossil fuels. Matzen, M., & Demirel, Y. (2016) highlight several ways automotive manufacturers use CNG to reduce transport-related air pollution. Some of the research also provides evidence that other gaseous alternative fuels such as LPG, LNG, and CNG reduce emission levels of hydrocarbons, CO, and particulate matter compared to traditional fuel choices diesel and gasoline engines. On the other hand, the usage of natural gas in ICE is riddled with challenges such as low flame speed and ignitability. Hence, its adoption as an alternative fuel should carefully consider such challenges.
The use of methanol as an alternative fuel in ICE models has also been studied by different scholars and researchers (Valera, H., & Agarwal, A. K. 2019, Sharudin, H., Abdullah, N. R., Mamat, A. M. I., & Ali, O. M. 2016). Most of the studies identify different modes of application of methanol and ethanol in a spark-ignition engine due to their shared characteristics. Both fuels possess the same physical and chemical properties, which make them possible alternatives for fossil fuels. Both ethanol and methane can be combined with other fuels at varying proportions to improve engine efficiency, thus reducing emissions.
Another alternative for diesel exists in dimethyl ether (DME) due to its resistance to carboncarbon bonds. DME is also preferred due to its other characteristics, such as superior self-ignition properties when compared to other fuels (Kim, H. J., & Park, S. H., 2016). The combination of DME and diesel in compression ignition engines can be used to address the shortcomings of using pure DME, such as low density and poor viscosity. Alternative fuels offer automotive makers and especially those involved in the manufacture of hybrid models, to reduce the production of emissions from the internal combustion engine (Barta et al., 2016).
The finite nature of fossil fuels creates a gap in the energy sector, which can be filled by the use of alternative fuels in the transport sector. Most of the literature reviewed identify four major categories of alternative fuels, including electricity, liquid, gaseous, and solid energy sources. The diversity of these alternatives suggests that policy-makers should carefully evaluate each renewable energy source to adequately develop alternative energy solutions. Although electricity has been advocated for as the ideal alternative, some scholars argue that the current transportation infrastructure favors the development of liquid alternatives (Zhao, B., 2017). This argument also takes a psychosocial approach claiming that human nature is resistant to change, and when change is inevitable, people prefer alternatives that require the least effort.
The electrification process has been discussed in relation to light vehicles and passenger vehicles operating in major cities. Long-distance modes of transport have however, not been explored as much despite their significance to the sector. Some ofthe measures proposed as solutions to the emissions produced by long-distance road freight are the deployment of alternative powertrains in heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) based on their load and fuel consumption (Ewing, M., 2019). HDVs contribute to the rising share of GHG emissions from transportation; thus they should be considered when developing policies aimed at reducing CO2 emissions from the sector. Although most researchers agree that there is a need to explore less-emission alternatives to diesel use in long-distance transportation, there is a lack of alternative solutions that would enable such a transition.
Several measures have been proposed to manage the rising share of emissions from longdistance road transport, including revision ofthe Climate Change Act (2008) bythe UKgovernment, making it a requirement to reduce GHG emissions to zero by 2050 (Ainalis et al., 2020). Road freight is an essential driver of economic activity in the United Kingdom but also contributes to GHG and noxious emissions Bonilla, D. (2020). Since HDVs constitute the majority of the domestic freight, there is a need to develop alternatives to the diesel-powered HDVs in order to achieve the 2050 zero-emission targets.
Although scaling the use of batteries as a replacement for the diesel-powered HDVs is a promising initiative in the efforts to curb runaway emissions, several challenges can be expected. Most notable are the challenges in rolling out adequate power and energy quantities for long-distance HDVs (Lopez et al., 2020). In the UK, achieving net-zero emissions by 2050 would require developing a solution for all long-distance vehicles, which contribute 5% of the national GHG emissions (Moultak, M., Lutsey, N., & Hall, D., 2017).
The significance of the electrification process in HDVs is highlighted by research by the Centre for Sustainable Road Freight, which indicates that it would be impossible to reduce emissions by more than 60% without electrifying all long-distance HDVs (Davis et al., 2018). Contemporary road freight literature recognizes the importance of long-haul transport to economic growth while also highlighting the implications ofthe sector on sustainability through efficiency and the accompanying health hazards of GHG emissions (Tob-Ogu et al., 2018).
In addition to the environmental policies in implementation by local and regional authorities to achieve breakthroughs in the electrification of HDVs, car manufacturers are continuously developing technologies in the production of low-emission long-distance models. The majority of long-distance is dominated by trucks and buses. Some ofthe leading car manufacturers, such as Tesla, have implemented strategies to transfer the available technology and production of electric LDVs to the HDV segment. The company has made advances in providing the high energy requirements of HDVs by extending their battery capacity and power transition through their flagship semi-truck, the Tesla Semi, which has a superior driving range of 800 km (Fisher, M., & McCabe, M. B., 2019). The company also intends to develop similar electric HDV models with the presiding aim of disrupting the dominance of diesel- powered trucks.
The Tesla Semi represents the huge potential to reduce energy cost with the product poised to operate at half the energy cost required to operate a conventional diesel truck. The logistics market is dominated by a preference for low investment and operating costs. Thus, the Tesla Semi presents an opportunity for logistics companies to reduce the payback period on their investment by shifting from diesel trucks to electric HDVs. Advancements in the driving range and cost of operating electric HDVs would contribute to the adoption of electric models in long-distance transportation in the long-run, thus helping in the achievement of reduced emissions from HDVs and the wider transport sector.
The implementation of electrification in the HDV segment is faced with numerous challenges, with the main barrier being the high energy demand for large vehicles. Long-distance trucks and buses also require large driving ranges, posing a challenge to batteries' choice for use in such an undertaking. HDVs generally require high battery capacity levels when compared to LDVs, with significant implications on vehicle weight and cost. HDVs also tend to have a longer lifespan than the available lifespan of batteries meaning that battery replacement during the lifecycle of long-distance vehicles is inevitable. This suggests that the adoption of electric models in long-distance vehicles is likely to increase the demand for batteries as well as their raw materials, including lithium, nickel, and cobalt.
Research by the Centre for Sustainable Road Freight has shown that it is impossible to reduce carbon emissions from the road freight sector by more than 60% without electrification of long-haul vehicles. (Keyes et al., 2018). The same research indicates that it is possible to reduce emissions by 8090% by 2050 if all long-haul vehicles are electrified. Despite these bottlenecks, the use of electricity in the transport sector is seen as a progressive move towards achieving sustainability in the transport sector. The electrification process not only increases vehicle efficiency but also diversifies the energy sources utilized in mobility functions. Political implications also accompany this transformation in oilproducing countries and regions as oil prices can be expected to fluctuate with the sale of more electric models. The electrification process's societal implications can be expected in the form of reduced costs otherwise utilized in importing hydrocarbon fuels and mitigating the effects of environmental degradation.
The defining implication of electrification of the automotive sector is the reduction in global demand for oil. In the current environment, European economies were estimated to import crude oil valued at €187 billion in 2015 (European Commission, 2020). Additional costs to the environment also accelerated the import costs. As the EU aims at reducing energy costs and emissions from the transport sector, the role of energy-efficient vehicles running on renewable energy is emphasized. The commission has also instituted the Directive on the Promotion of Clean and Energy Efficient Road Transport Vehicles, which aims at increasing the penetration of EVs in the transport sector through the continuous replacement offossil fuels with alternatives such as electricity and other low-carbon substitutes.
The transport sector has been identified as a critical component of the EU's efforts to develop favorable energy and climate policies. Even before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has revitalized calls for more energy efficiency and sustainability, the EU's climate and energy policies had already set targets for energy efficiency, minimum renewable energy production levels, and utilization, and maximum GHG emissions. The pandemic implications led to the development ofthe European Union Recovery Plan, which features the Green Cars Initiative, which advocates for the production of more sustainable mobility products and services. The emergence of a global pandemic has largely accelerated such initiatives to support the development of alternative fuels.
The main theme ofthe electrification of vehicles is the reduction of emissions from the transport sector and calls for decarbonization on a global scale. The measures adopted following the Paris Agreement and other policy-making platforms such as the EU hope to regulate CO2 emissions by 2030. The achievement of these targets requires an introduction of fully electric and partially electrified vehicles. The electrification process is further driven by the body of local and regional air quality regulations as well as the establishment of zero-emission zones.
The European region is on an ambitious path to achieve energy efficiency by reducing GHG emissions and increasing the production of renewable energy extending to electricity production and distribution. Combining the electrification of vehicles with low-emission practices at power plants will help in improving air quality and achieving the envisioned climatic targets. Furthermore, the transformation from ICE mobility models to battery-powered engines can aid in reducing emissions from the transport sector while contributing to climate protection if the goal of generating the required electrical energy from low-carbon sources is achieved. These aspects emphasize the need to match the electrification process with a shift from fossil fuels in the production and distribution of electricity to realize the full environmental benefits of electrification.
BATTERY CHARGING, RANGE, AND COST
In principle, Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) use an electric motor powered by a battery which replaces the internal combustion engine and fuel tank. These vehicles are also connected to a charging port when not in use. BEVs' benefits are plentiful, including high efficiency, minimal tailpipe emissions, low electric energy costs, and better acceleration. Most notably, these vehicles have a huge potential to utilize renewable energy. Despite the beaming potential of BEVs to the current environmental concerns, several factors limit the realization of these benefits.
A study by Nour et al., (2020) identifies three major modes of EV charging. These modes include conductive charging, wireless charging and battery swapping. The most common mode remains conductive charging which involves physical contact between the battery and the power distribution system. The adoption of EVs is also dependent on access to charging stations outlining the significance of advancements in EV battery chargers. Charger systems can be further categorized as on-board, off- board, unidirectional, and bidirectional chargers. Bidiretional charging systems allowfor battery-to-home (B2H) and battery-to-grid (B2G) power flow. In simple terms, EVs can inject power into the grid system. This is one ofthe main hallmarks of BEVs and FCEVs.
A report presented by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology opines that about 85% of PHEVs charging in the United States is carried out at home. A research conducted by Mangunkusumo et al., (2020) identifies three charging modes: level 1, level 2, and level 3 chargers. Of the three, level 1 and level 2 charging methods are the most promising methods since they allow for home charging. Level 1 charging methods are especially viable for commercial EV use since they can utilize the existing infrastructure through the standard wall outlets. Although applicable and simple, this method is only suited to charge on-board batteries and charging takes a longer time due to the low power rating of conventional wall outlets.
Nonetheless, level 1 charging a cheaper charging method with minimal interference to the power distribution system. Individual owners might prefer level 2 charging due to the higher power ratings of up to 240 V involved. The higher ratings translate to shorter charging times although users may be required to acquire dedicated electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) (Lightman, S., & Brewer, T., 2020). The fastest method is level 3 and has the potential to be rolled out commercially along main roads and highways. Although higher power ratings mean less charging times, this method is only available for off-board batteries and is thus not suitable for home charging. The high costs associated with this charging method also presents challenges for implementation. The superior charging capacity of level 3 chargers also means that it is the preferred method for installation in public spaces and may therefore present potential problems resulting from peak power demand which may overload the power distribution network.
Despite the prevalence of conductive charging systems, EVs can also be charged without physical contact between the battery and power distribution system. This method is described as wireless charging (WC) and has the potential to reduce battery capacity leading to benefits such as reduced weight, cost, and energy consumption. The concept is relatively new and future advancements may enable its application as an alternative to conductive charging. A study by Machura, P., & Li, Q. (2019) identifies three categories of wireless charging systems: inductive, resonant inductive, and capacitive wireless charging.
The basic operation of inductive wireless charging (IWC) has been outlined in Li, S., & Mi, C. C. (2014). According to the authors, the AC/DC converter in an IWC quickly converts AC power from the grid into DC and back to AC power for transmission. The primary coil and the AC/DC converter are all part of the underground power supply system. The secondary coil is located in the EV and receives power through electromagnetic induction following with the on-board converter converts AC to DC power hence charging the battery. Wireless charging can occur when vehicles are in motion. Nour et al., (2020) offers two sub-categories of IWC featuring static inductive charging and dynamic inductive charging.
Vehicles must remain static for static inductive charging while dynamic inductive charging allows for charging as the vehicle is in motion.
The existing wireless charging technologies only allow for unidirectional charging hence there is a need to develop bidirectional capabilities which will enable EVs to provide electrical services in future. Wireless charging provides several benefits including enhanced safety and convenience. However, the method is held back by the high costs of installing charging infrastructure and low power transfer efficiency between the primary and secondary coils Musavi, F., & Eberle, W. (2014). Despite the outlying challenges, wireless charging systems have a huge potential to increase convenience as drivers can charge their vehicles on the move.
Sarker has investigated an additional charging system, the battery swapping method, M. R., Pandzic, H., & Ortega-Vazquez, M. A. (2014) through their analysis of battery swapping stations (BSS). These stations provide EV owners the chance to exchange their empty batteries for fully charged ones within a short period. A battery swapping system could be viable for commercialized electric buses following successful application in electric trains and trams.
The main advantage of battery swapping services is their high capacity battery which would normally take long hours before attaining full charge through conductive charging methods. Battery swapping services also require large stocks of batteries and battery owners would have to rent the batteries (Sarker, M. R., Pandzic, H., & Ortega-Vazquez, M. A., 2014). A battery swapping station would thus need to acquire battery swapping equipment, a large stock of batteries, a distribution transformer, and battery charging systems. The authors further argue that the battery swapping concept's efficiency can further be enhanced by the development of bidirectional capacities, which would enable battery swapping stations to provide electrical services in a Vehicle-to-Grid model. Other challenges such as battery standardization and high set-up costs also hinder the actualization of battery swapping services.
Uncontrolled charging of EVs has potential implications on the power distribution network despite being the most commonly method used for conductional charging systems. The challenge is amplified by the convenience of charging EVs from domestic set-ups. Uncontrolled charging results from charging plug-in models at maximum power ratings to 100 % state of charge (SOC). Another study concludes that uncontrolled charging may be detrimental during peak load demand, create unbalanced systems, overload distribution systems, and increase power losses Alshahrani, S., Khalid, M., & Almuhaini, M. (2019). The preference for charging EVs at home also presents challenges since charging times would most likely occur as owners get home from work increasing harmonic distortion during peak hours.
One ofthe main challenges influencing the application of BEVs in combating adverse climatic conditions is the complexity of energy storage systems and their traits defined by product life cycle, charging times, energy densities, safety standards, weight, and cost (Olaniyi, K. A., Ogunleye, A. A., & Osifeko, T. M., 2020). The significance of the energy storage system (ESS) to the successful application of EVs and their performance has been emphasized by several literal sources (Zhang et al., 2017). The battery system is pivotal to the discussion on the range and performance of EVs. The basic infrastructure of a battery assumes the role of a transducer converting chemical energy into electrical energy. Although there are many types of batteries that serve this purpose, BEVs and PHEVs are more likely to use li-ion batteries evidenced by the concentration of existing literature on the subject of li-ion batteries. Most advocates of these type of batteries cite many benefits including high power and energy generation capabilities and relatively lower costs associated with this battery concept.
Electric vehicles utilize electricity as their main source of power and energy and often need to be recharged. The current recharging infrastructure allows for charging from private home chargers, street charging stations, large charging stations, and workplace chargers. With the expected growth in the manufacture and adoption of EV models, several implications on the existing electricity infrastructure can also be expected. The charging of EVs implies increased need for high energy requirements with the incremental load drawing power from the grid system albeit for a short period of time. In the short-term, the grid system might experience shortfalls. Thus there is a need to anticipate the negative implications of increased electrification in the automotive industry on the power distribution network. These mitigation measures encompass the need to develop the existing power production and distribution infrastructure to satisfy the growing demand for power and energy. The huge infrastructural upgrades needed also pose economic challenges for utility companies and governments.
To enable an understanding of the different characteristics of how different EV vary in terms of load and potential implications on the power distribution systems, it would be important to consider different load designs and operations. Such an understanding would also be beneficial when developing mitigation measures against the electrification process's adverse effects on the grid system. Ensuring that the grid system is sufficient to cater for the increased power demands will ease the integration of EVs into national and regional distribution networks.
The production and distribution of power is an essential subject of discussion since the push towards a sustainable transport sector cannot be achieved without similar maneuvers in the production and distribution phases. Also noteworthy is the existing body of research with a focus on the impact of climatic changes on these two phases. Climatic elements such as temperature, wind speed and direction, and precipitation have a bearing on power supply. Wind has been prescribed as one of the renewable energy sources that can enhance sustainable energy production practices. Adverse weather conditions have an unfavorable effect on wind power production through wind speed changes in most parts and atmospheric icing in polar geographic areas.
Wind power generation is dependent on wind speed. The variation in energy properties of different wind speeds is highlighted in Clausen et al. (2007) which reports up to 1305 W/m2 wind power at speeds of 12 m/s compared to 16 W/m2 of wind power produced at speeds of 3 m/s. These findings show the extent to which changes to the speed of wind can have on the production of electricity in wind energy farms. The effect of climatic changes on wind speed has also been described to vary depending on geographical locations. Areas with increasing wind speeds could thus be expected to have a higher potential to produce more wind power while those with decreasing speeds are likely to produce less wind energy.
Climatic conditions also influence the production of hydro-electric power. Adverse weather patterns can significantly influence water movement cycles affecting requisite dam levels due to changes in river flow. These effects also vary according to the region and sensitivity of water flow. Research is uncertain of the possibility of increase or decrease in precipitation and river flow. Most studies however agree on the potential for increased precipitation to induce river flow to improve hydropower generation. Another study assess the impact of increased river flow on dams and reservoirs with the results showing negative results in case riverflow exceeds the capacity ofthe current infrastructure.
Most of the studies on the subject evaluate the implications of uncontrolled recharging of EVs on the power distribution system. The limited exploration could stem from the inherent uncertainty over charging durations, charger ratings, distribution of charging stations, state of charge (SoC), and battery capacity. The accurate estimation of battery capacity and SOC is crucial to the safety and efficiency of battery systems used in EVs (Li, X., Wang, Z., & Zhang, L., 2019). In an attempt to address the bottlenecks of battery systems in EVs, leading economies in Asia, America, and Europe have commenced specialized projects aimed at improving the performance of batteries. Key concentrations in this endeavor include safety of operation, driving range, battery costs, and power management strategies. These challenges precipitate the need for efficient management of batteries.
An informative study on the performance metrics required to power long-distance vehicles exemplifies what it would take to successfully commercialize electric HDVs. Some of the key determinants identified include the battery pack size, battery pack weight for different driving ranges, the mean cost of battery packs, and maximum payload capacity. The authors rely on the development of fully electric models of the famed Tesla Semi Truck which boasted of driving ranges of up to 900 miles by 2017 (Sripad, S., & Viswanathan, V., 2017). The authors proceed to highlight the major determinants of the electrification process of HDVs. Gross vehicle weight, for instance, determines the pack size while battery pack weight is dependent on specific energy requirements. The battery pack cost is also subject to the mean cost of the packs with the potential benefits accruing from the use of smaller battery packs with high energy storage capacity. The cost of battery packs remains a key challenge for the electrification process.
A battery management system (BMS) is basically composed of signal lines, controllers, actuators, and sensors and is primarily charged with the role of guaranteeing safety during operation. This system also ensures optimal use of energy by communicating with the vehicular energy management system. To do this, the BMS performs functions such as monitoring and controlling the charging and discharging processes.
Various studies also focus on key elements in the journey towards providing renewable energy to the growing population to ease and transform conventional mobility options. These elements include the impact of unplanned vehicles charging, increasing total power demand from distribution networks, transformer and cable loading, the potential effect of power losses, and the right voltage-current balance. Several remedies to these bottlenecks to the electrification process have also been provided.
The potential mitigating factors include smart charging technologies, vehicle-to-building (V2B), efficient storage systems for delayed charging, and vehicle-to-grid (V2G).
Despite the electrification of motor vehicles having already picked up largely due to all stakeholders' concerted efforts, broadening user acceptance can be accelerated by increasing the range capability of EVs. These sentiments are based on a comparison between conventional ICE vehicles and EVs, which forms part ofthe consumer's decision-making process in the mainstream market. The need for extended EV ranges in the consumer market is however hindered by structural inefficiency as battery manufacturers can only achieve such a feat by increasing the size of the battery which in turn increases the range of the electro-chemical energy stored. As a direct consequence of increasing the energy storage capacity, vehicle cost, size, and weight increase. The culmination of similar efforts to increase EV range, in the current state of battery development, would thus be a reduction in efficiency. Several other solutions have been proposed including improvements to the overall system efficiency and cutting back on vehicle weight. Overall system efficiency has been achieved in selected driving modes and should be pursued further in an attempt to reduce absolute energy consumption. On the other hand, reducing vehicle weight has been prescribed as a viable strategy. Recent studies still express reservations on the scale of weight reduction required to make modest changes to the driving range.
Conventional vehicle manufacturers have in the past leveraged on their superior range capabilities to dominate the consumer market. This dominance might face stiff competition from electric models especially as urban users adopt new mobility choices featuring innovative connectivity and integrated solutions such as ride-hailing and ride-sharing options. In long-distance travel, trains and plains may gain preference as inter-urban travelers can easily access mobility services at both ends of theirtravel. Light-duty vehicles (LDVs) production can also be complemented by the availability of charging infrastructure with benefits to reduce energy consumption and the overall cost of batteries.
Implementing these solutions to the transport sector significantly reduces the competitiveness of ICE powered cars due to competitive total cost of operation (TCO) values for EVs.
THE PROBLEM WITH ELECTRIC VEHICLES
There is a great challenge in charging cars particularly in urban areas without any kind of off- street parking spaces. Change takes time. In addition, drivers tend to choose hybrid vehicles instead of pure electric cars, and this locks up the use offossil fuel sources. The all-electric Tesla Model 3 is one of the UK's best-sells vehicles (Ajanovic, A., & Haas, R., 2018). Its popularity does not however detract from the fact that only about 1.1 percent of new vehicle sales are electric, and that there is barely any demand for electric cars. Since many UK drivers will have to replace their vehicles between one and 15 years, many drivers are not likely to purchase an electric model in the immediate future.
The charging problem extends beyond consumer dynamics into structural challenges. Majhi et al., (2020) focuses on the difficulties involved in developing a universal charging regime. The authors evaluate the emerging wireless power transfer technologies that are arguably best suited for integration into the transport network. The resource also goes ahead to explore several other bottlenecks that act as a hindrance to developing appropriate plug-in and wireless charging infrastructure. Notably, the presiding problem seems to stem from the socio-economic aspects of charging infrastructure allocation challenges.
The charging infrastructure deficit means that greater changes are needed to provide more charging locations for electric vehicles. Another subject of controversy is the tax regime imposed on fuel. In the current scenario, fuel tax is an important source of public funds and electric vehicle owners are subject to lower taxes as an incentive for more electric vehicle uptake. This means that a raft of tax reforms are also part ofthe electric vision in transport.
The road to a fully electric transport system is also not clear. The recent developments in battery technology and charging devices has also brought a wave of uncertainty. There are major debates on which technologies are to apply as the standard given the disparities in housing, parking areas, and mode of charging. This disparity is evident in people whose residential areas have no private parking spaces where vehicles can be charged overnight.
Another critical aspect of the electrification process is the fundamental perception of a technological remedy to contemporary problems by resorting to rapid social changes to avert predicted events. Research by Morgan, J. (2020) suggeststhat the rallying behind Battery ElectricVehicles is demonstrative of this phenomenon. The author argues that the anticipated emission reduction capabilities of electric vehicles could be a misconception ofthe lifecycles of BEVs. Taking into account the emission reduction capacity per electric vehicle, the author notes, the lifecycle of an electric car downplays the zero-emission concept. In reference to the standards set by the Paris Agreement, the author further notes that the transformation from the ICE to BEVs may contribute to more carbon emissions than provided by the Paris Agreement.
Government policy is another significant challenge to the electrification process. A report by The Centre for Research into Energy Demand Solutions (CREDS) urges the United Kingdom to develop alternatives that ensure progressive standards of living without reliance on cars (Eyre, N., 2018). The report argues that car ownership and use is of greater importance to the government as has been the case for a long time. Citing several government interventions aimed at expanding the transport infrastructure to satisfy demand, the report instead proposes more efforts towards reducing demand.
The report is also supported by Morgan, J. (2020) which argues that increased vehicle ownership even in an electric era could be detrimental to decarbonization. This resource also notes that government intervention should not be focused on replacing the existing vehicles with electric models but must also seek to develop low-emission transport networks in line with current decarbonization efforts.
COVID-19 AND A GREENER FUTURE
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a global impact affecting most aspects of daily living. The implications of a global health crisis on society have been felt across all major sectors with some benefits to the environment and major disruptions to economic sectors such as tourism, transport, and the global supply chain. The economic downturn has led to the international community's adoption of common goals to achieve a healthier and more resilient society. Domestic and regional authoritative bodies have resulted to economic stimulus packages aimed at strengthening the economic environment. The largescale path towards economic recovery presents a unique opportunity to accelerate the shift towards zero carbon emissions, climate neutrality, and environmental sustainability.
Since the outbreak ofthe COVID-19 coronavirus in the Hubei province of China, it has quickly spread to other continents. Reactionary policies have mostly involved varying intensities of restrictions on movement and durations of lockdowns. Some historical events such as the Second World War might have resulted in similar reactionary measures but lockdowns on a global scale on occasion ofthe COVID- 19 pandemic are unprecedented. The current health crisis has been ongoing since the end of 2019 and continues to be a prominent global challenge to the day of writing this paper. The novel crisis has forced a significant portion ofthe global population to cease normal operations with most remaining at home. Major economies have been adversely affected as the manufacturing sector continues experiencing raw material shortages due to the global supply chain's breakdown. The restriction of movement has had an immediate effect on the transport sector with unexpected gains through the reduction of vehicle emissions.
In the short-term, concerted efforts to counter the spread ofthe COVID-19 pandemic have severely impacted economies. The institution of nation-wide lockdowns curtailed many activities with major sectors such as travel and tourism, retail, and service sectors being impeded. Although the global population has adopted new ways of life such as e-commerce for their purchasing patterns, crisis control measures have affected economies negatively. The estimation of thefull implications ofthe COVID-19 pandemic has been a challenge due to the health crisis's novelty. It is especially difficult to estimate the initial implications on gross domestic product (GDP) due to the inadequacies in collecting statistical evidence. A range of estimates from bodies such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) however paint a gloomy picture with unprecedented declines in GDP on occasion of breakdown of economic activity (International Monetary Fund 2020).
Although existing literature identifies certain areas where emissions have rapidly declines, most studies acknowledge that it is too early to establish the extent of the pollution reduction. A few studies indicate declining levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) emissions by up to half of the pre-pandemic levels in most European urban areas (European Environment Agency 2020). These environmental gains have been largely attributed to the collapse of the transport sector. Although GHG emissions have also been observed to decline in the early stages ofthe global pandemic in major cities in China, research is inconclusive on whether such gains can be sustained with the end of restricted movement.
Some studies illustrate a correlation between the reduction in emissions and the rapid changes in aggregate demand and consumption. Other sources argue that GDP and emission levels are exclusive elements in the pandemic period. However, some indications show a striking correlation in major cities in the leading economies affected by the health crisis. The International Monetary Fund predicted a 6% growth for the Chinese economy for the 2020 fiscal year with a quick turn-around at the beginning ofthe year with an expected 10% decline in GDP anticipated (International Monetary Fund 2020). Similar outcomes are also expected across Europe and the United States. The claims that GDP and emissions have been decoupled have thus been challenged as both elements continue declining across the globe.
The pursuit of low-carbon mobility options is also dependent on critical raw materials (CRMs) whose production is dominated by a few countries leading to increased supply risks (Schmid, M., 2020). The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic have been felt in many aspects oftransportation, health systems, and the economy across the globe. These implications have rippled through the global supply chain with critical raw material used in the production of energy materials such as battery-powered EVs and energy storage devices being adversely affected (Dyatkin, B., & Meng, Y. S., 2020). Workers were also barred from working on batteries and vehicles' production due to the mandatory quarantine directions with the supply of manufactured goods curtailed by reactionary measures. The pandemic has also resulted in economic uncertainties with many factory workers being laid-off. Consumers have thus more conservative in their purchasing habits resulting in reduced demand for electronic devices.
The push for renewable energy sources has accelerated the demand for lithium-ion batteries. This demand is heightened by improvements in the manufacture and distribution industry, which have driven down batteries' overall cost in the last decade (Belhadia et al., 2020). The United States, being a major consumer of lithium-ion batteries, only produces about 12 % of the quantity required by manufacturing. The deficit is sourced from the major producers such as China which accounts for 73% of the global lithium-ion battery production (Baker et al., 2020). The coronavirus pandemic's onset saw the institution of travel restrictions on imports from China, which significantly reduced the flow of crucial raw materials for the manufacturing industry. Yu et al., (2017) argues that the Chinese government has encourage the use and manufacture of electric vehicles and thus the country's domestic battery production is likely to remain stable.
Manufacturers of lithium-ion batteries also suffered from financial set-backs due to decreased consumer demand. Many of these firms have been forced to undertake mitigation measures including employee lay-offs and other cost-saving strategies. In the United States, several car manufacturers such as General Motors, Chrysler, and Ford have been forced to halt their production of plug-in hybrid vehicles. Tesla also suffered staffing shortages in their battery production facilities as workers could not access their Shanghai plant due to movement restrictions. Major European EV manufacturers such as Renault have also halted EVs' production on accession ofthe COVID-19 pandemic (IEA, 2020). The operational firms also remain susceptible to economic shutdowns with each wave of the pandemic. The disruptions in the production and distribution of batteries mean that even as the pandemic fades away, the supply chain would require a period of recovery to align to pre-pandemic levels.
Despite the adverse effects of the pandemic on the global supply chain, market sentiments indicate no significant shortages in the supply of crucial raw materials in the production of batteries (Dyatkin, B., & Meng, Y. S., 2020). The stable supply levels have been attributed to anode and cathode material's oversupply in 2019 when consumer demand for electric vehicles was relatively lower than the preceding years. Belhadia et al. (2020) acknowledges that the suppression ofthe manufacturing and battery supply chains is not unique to these industries but transcends almost all other economic sectors. Both resources agree that these challenges offer insight into how crucial sectors such as energy storage devices and electric vehicle manufacturers may anticipate logistical issues in producing and distributing raw materials during periods of uncertainty.
The Chinese market is preferred due to the low costs associated with lithium-ion batteries' scale of production. The logistical crisis created by the COVID-19 pandemic is likely to push manufacturers to other producers such as Korea. However, the production of these batteries is expected to remain steady supported by growing domestic demand for electric vehicles. As one of the growing markets for electric vehicles, the European continent has also suffered drawbacks owing to the disruption of global supply chains. The continent heavily relies on Asian automakers to satisfy the demand for EVs and maintain competitive prices against conventional ICE models.
The breakdown of the supply chain is thus likelyto encourage European nations to invest more in innovative battery products to match the costs and scale offered by their Asian counterparts. The disruption brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic is also likely to accelerate efforts towards the production of crucial raw materials within domestic markets. Likewise, the IEA Report (2020) predicts a future need for stable global supply chains of critical raw materials to sustain the gains made in the use of renewable energy. As noted by the report, this would be a progressive move towards increased availability of solar panels, electric-powered devices, and electric vehicles.
The production and distribution of critical raw materials is crucial to the electrification process. Lithium, cobalt, and nickel form part of the components of fast-charging batteries while the conduction of electricity favors the use of copper (IEA, 2020). According to the report, raw material demand for 2019 stood at 17 kt, 19 kt, and 65 kt for lithium, cobalt, and nickel consecutively.
SUMMARY
The existing body of knowledge offers insight into this research's key objectives ranging from the core elements of the electrification of mobility to how this process is related to environmental awareness. The literature review also delves deeper into the transport sector's emission and the integration of alternative fuels to the transport sector. Electric energy has been offered as a viable solution to the problem of high emissions from the transport sector. Diverse literature also provides various alternative fuels that can be used to accelerate the shift from fossil fuels thus enhancing decarbonization efforts.
Most ofthe literature reviewed identifythe electrification process as a critical component of global efforts to mitigate against adverse climatic factors. The presiding assumption is that the adoption of electric models of transport will positively affect the pursuit of zero emissions from the transport sector. The adoption of electric vehicles is influenced by several factors including battery charging, range, and cost. Government intervention has been witnessed in reactionary measures such as lockdowns and trade restrictions with an overall negative influence on the global supply chain. Various regions and countries have also supported the shift towards renewable energy sources by adopting legislative measures to curb high GHG emissions. The European Union, for instance, identifies transport sector electrification as an essential aspect in the achievement of decarbonization and energy sustainability.
Although research focused on the implications ofthe COVID-19 pandemic is scarce, the existing research remains inconclusive on the global health crisis's overall effect across various sectors. Most research identified challenges in accurately estimating the exact costs to society and various sectors and industries with the transport sector's inclusion. Several ofthe sources reviewed also highlighted several unintended benefits of restricted movement on the environment including reduced emission levels and a growing preference for electric vehicles over the conventional ICEVs. Existing research also delves into different perspectives of electrified transportation, such as the energy capacity required to successfully integrate EVs' efficiency into less developed sectors such as long-distance travel and commercialized modes of transport.
CHAPTER 3: EE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Academic research is based on developing the research around existing knowledge in various subjects and disciplines. Researchers out to ensure accuracy of their undertakings but the conduct of research is not exempt from complexities. The growing body of knowledge in business-related fields is on the rise and thus research remains fragmented and interdisciplinary. It is thus challenging to remain upraised on current trends and be at the forefront by collecting state-of-the-art research focused on a central subject. These challenges can be addressed using literature review as a research method.
This research sought to follow recent events with a focus on the implications of the COVID-19 pandemic on the electrification process and climate change. The novel nature of these key research elements made it particularly hard to gather relevant research material. Some of the research objectives include understanding the correlation between the electrification and mobility and climate change and the impact of the coronavirus pandemic on the two elements. The fragmented nature of the research variables thus necessitated a literature review of secondary sources to understand the current trends in the shift to renewable energy sources amid the COVID-19 pandemic. The following is a detailed description of the research methodology.
LITERATURE REVIEW
RATIONALE
A literature review can be described as a systematic method of collecting and analyzing existing research (Tranfield, Denyer, & Smart, 2003). The presiding aim ofthis research paper was to form a firm foundation for advancing knowledge on the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the electrification process and climate change. The method employed tries to answer the research questions by integrating findings from an extensive body of empirical research. One of the strong suits of literature review as a research method is integrating many opinions, theories, views, and approaches in advancing knowledge and facilitating theory development. This paper also utilized the power of diversity of literal sources thus incorporating a wide range of perspectives necessary to satisfy the research objections.
The research objectives also necessitated evaluating empirical findings on a meta-level to build a conceptual framework of the state of electrification prior to, and during the COVID-19 pandemic. A literature review offers a suitable way of synthesizing research findings to identify trends and highlight areas in need of further exploration (Torres-Carrion et al., 2018). Authors in many disciplines often begin by describing previous research to understand the research area (Davis et al., 2014). This exercise is referred to as the "literature review" and helps the researcher develop the study's aim by addressing the research questions.
Successful use of a literature review as a research methodology calls for a strict adherence to a laid-out plan in order to ensure accuracy and reliability. However the incentive will be important if a genuinely integrative analysis is carried out effectively and leads to a new philosophical paradigm or hypothesis. Likewise, all research methods' success depends on the information gathered, the method of collection, and the clarity of reporting. Literature reviews seek to evaluate theoretical evidence in a certain discipline while validating arguments' accuracy by comparing against competing theories (Tranfield et al., 2003).
Thus, a literature review allows the exploration of specific variables within a narrow scope or collective knowledge on a certain subject. This research undertook a literature review to investigate the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on two variables, climate change and the electrification of vehicles, and to explore collective evidence in the current state of electrification. The methodology was also chosen to enhance the research's value by drawing inferences from wide perspectives given the scale of the current health crisis.
There are a set of current regulations for literature reviews. All forms of literature review may be beneficial and necessary to meet a particular target, depending on the approach required to accomplish the analysis's aim. Depending on the process of the analysis, these methods may be qualitative, quantitative, or have a mixed design
RESEARCH APPROACH: SEMI-SYSTEMATIC
As a research tool and procedure for defining and objectively evaluating relevant research, as well as for collecting and analyzing data from said research, a systematic review can be an essential research method. In order to address a specific research question or hypothesis, a systematic review aims to find all empirical evidence that matches the pre-specified inclusion criteria. In order to combine the findings of the studies included, statistical approaches such as meta-analysis are used. A metaanalysis is a systematic way of weighing and comparing various studies' outcomes and finding trends, disagreements, or relationships that occur in multiple studies on the same topic topic (Davis et al., 2014). Each primary research is abstracted and coded using the meta-analysis approach, and the results are then converted into a standard metric to quantify an overall effect size. However, to perform a metaanalysis, statistical measures (effect size) must be shared between the included studies to compare results. Therefore, performing a meta-analysis on studies with different methodological approaches is difficult.
As a result, to evaluate the quality and strength of findings from different types of studies and to compare results, more qualitative approaches have been developed. This is often referred to as a systematic qualitative review, which can be described as a method of comparing qualitative study findings. To collect articles, a strict systematic review process is used, and then a qualitative approach is used to evaluate them.
The execution of a systematic review has many incentives and possible contributions. For instance, we can define whether an effect is constant across studies and determine what areas should be investigated through future studies to show the effect. Several methods can be used to determine which characteristics of the study level or sample exist and impact the subject of study. These techniques have an effect on whether studies carried out in one cultural context show significantly different results from those carried out in another.
This paper uses a semi-systematic review. The semi-systematic or narrative analysis methodology is intended for topics that have been differently conceptualized and researched in multiple fields by diverse groups of scholars and obstruct a full systematic review process. A semi-systematic analysis also looks at how science has evolved over time within a chosen area or how a subject has grown across research traditions, in addition to the purpose of overviewing a topic. In general, the study attempts to recognize and explain all theoretically applicable research traditions that have consequences for the subject examined and to synthesize them using meta-narratives rather than calculating the scale of the effect (Wong et al., 2013). It should be noted that the semi-systematic literature review used in this research involved further adaptation to the specific research objectives. In conclusion, it is challenging to evaluate every single report that may be applicable to the subject, so a new approach must be created.
The initial phase of the review soughtto develop a search strategy. The search strategy helps define the appropriate search string and find the appropriate databases for the related documentation collection. Once the research topic was identified, the review plan was drafted to develop a research strategy. Words or phrases used to access suitable articles, books, and findings are referred to as search terms. These terms should be based on words and definitions specifically relevant to the topic of study. These search terms may either be narrow, depending on the purpose of the analysis and the research query. Notably, the incorporation of additional constraints may be worth exploring. The research strategy's overall aim was to scout for relevant literature for the elements of the research subject, namely, the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, electrification in the automotive sector, and the achievement of climate goals.
SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS
The criterion of inclusion for the study must be driven by the study objectives chosen. The year of publication, language of the article, and type of article are some of the parameters which can be considered and are widely used. The research adopted a search strategy that included selecting these three core elements as the key search terms. Searches for these terms were conducted through various avenues including Google Scholar, IEEE, EBSO host, Science Direct, Wiley online, and ProQuest databases. Exclusion criteria were also developed, focusing on peer-reviewed articles and journals relevant to the development of electric mobility concepts prior to and during the current health crisis. Although Google Scholar does not offer a publishers' list, a list ofjournals, types ofjournals, or any information about the time-span or the status of records referred to, it is useful to access citations that are not accessible through other databases using an advanced search feature in Google Scholar.
Much like all other databases used for this research, Science Direct is an online compilation of research studies published by the publisher Elsevier. This database also acts as an online scholarly citation index. The semi-systematic approach argues that the research process should be transparent and have a research strategy developed that allows readers to determine whether the reasons for the decisions taken were fair, both from a methodological perspective and for the topic chosen (Snyder, H., 2019).
ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION
While the systematic review may be the most reliable and comprehensive approach to the compilation of publications, since it is guaranteed that all relevant evidence has been examined, this strategy uses a narrow conceptual model and may not be practical and perhaps even acceptable for all kinds of projects. That's when it might be beneficial to do a semi-systemic analysis, butthis strategy is often more problematic and has less concrete steps to follow. Although the systematic reviews methodology is clear and follows incredibly stringent guidelines and norms, further development and adaptation to the particular project is required for the semi-systematic review process.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
With regard to all decisions taken, justification and accountability must be provided; there must be rational and legitimate motives. This is critical because, regardless of the approach type, the quality of the literature depends, among other things, on what literature is used and how it was chosen. A study might end up with very different answers and conclusions to the same research questions, depending on these decisions. For instance, ne may end up with a very biased or distorted sample and missing studies that would have been important to the study or even contradict other studies by choosing only certain papers, years, or even search words to narrow down the scope of study.
Researchers may even draw inaccurate conclusions about literature gaps, or even more importantly, provide misleading evidence of a particular impact. To allow clarity, a realistic solution is to write down all decisions, as the researchers must be transparent in a way that helps the intended users understand how the literature was identified, evaluated, synthesized, and published. Within a particular research domain or framework, this analysis method may be suitable for analyzing patterns, theoretical viewpoints, or common problems or for defining features of a theoretical phenomenon.
To be able to respond to their research question and be clear about the process, researchers also need to create their own guidelines and a thorough plan to ensure that the relevant literature is sufficiently examined. However, if done correctly, this can be a highly successful way of covering more regions and wider subjects than can be covered by a comprehensive analysis.
CHAPTER 4: R: RESEARCH FINDINGS
In numerous academic research undertakings, with the transportation field's inclusion, environmental concerns have been a popular theme. This paper aims to recognize major relevant studies and research methods in the field of transportation and environmental research and to identify future environmental policy development frameworks. The literature review showed that the number of studies on ecological issues published in transport and engineering journals has risen dramatically since 2007. One of the hottest topics in my review of literature is the emission of greenhouse gases.
Empirical evidence on the relationship between the decline in emissions and economic indicators during the COVID-19 quarantines and restricted movement indicates that the attainment of zero emissions as envisaged in the Paris agreement might not be a reality population growth continue to rise. The literature review shows a shortage of studies on the correlation between population growth and the limiting factor in global warming. This paper observes a particular need to investigate this relationship and whether technological advancements can accommodate the environmental dilemma caused by increased consumption. Depressed consumption during the pandemic exemplifies the extent to which environmental outcomes are determined by consumption.
Compared to the passenger, land and aviation markets, limited ecological research has been done with respect to marine transportation. In terms of popular methods employed in transport literature to address environmental concerns, the three leading techniques are pollution analysis, survey and simulation. There is still plenty of opportunity for future transport socio - ecological issues particularly in the maritime sector.
In responding to emergencies such as the COVID19 pandemic, energy plays a central role, ensuring sufficient healthcare facilities to help households during lockdowns. In the current crisis, protecting the renewable energy sector and its commitment to ensuring sustainable access to energy for everyone must be an urgent priority. In the short-term however, the most immediate impacts of carbon reductions are likely to be felt at COP26 and in the first half of this decade through new climate change policies. There would be a tendency to argue that there is a correspondingly less pressing need for immediate action on environmental protectionism over the global health concerns. In the short term, income security and welfare payments should take precedence over climate change. Investment can therefore be expected to go into heath systems. However, it is only expected that the goal to transition to renewable energy will actually be easier to reach, particularly when the coronavirus pandemic's implications resulting in a further decline in fossil fuel prices are considered.
The global pandemic has also been detrimental to the push for policies and regulations that aim to combat climate change. In the United States, for instance, fuel efficiency regulations have been amended and environmental compliance limited. The immediate crisis has been used to loosen some of the environmental regulations, and compliance has been reduced, not least as a result of lockdowns and social distance requirements. Besides, the lower standards, when combined with declining oil and gas prices, build the conditions for a strong turnaround in transport demand and transport-related emissions as soon as lockdown restrictions ease. If the reason is now cost relief for drivers, it will later have implications for well-being, air quality, and climate change.
In responding to emergencies such as the COVID-19 pandemic, energy plays a central role, from ensuring sufficient healthcare facilities to helping households during lockdowns. In the current crisis, protecting the renewable energy sector and its commitment to ensuring sustainable access to energy for everyone must be an urgent priority. Access to energy is recognized as a cornerstone of international cooperation as well as an intractable problem. Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG 7) is committed to ensuring "access for everyone to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy." The off-grid renewable energy industry could encounter far more appalling conditions, with the World Bank noting that the pandemic has severely impeded electrification initiatives. According to United Nations statistics, the worldwide electrification rate reached 89 percent in 2017, a 6 % increase from 2011 levels (Calzadilla, P., & Mauger, R., 2018). Access to electricity remains a key global challenge especially in developing economies.
In the age of COVID-19, energy access matters more than ever before. Access to energy is closely related to the collective response to the pandemic. Energy is crucial to the operation of health care facilities in particular. The national lockdowns currently impacting many countries and regions worldwide would suggest a disproportionate effect on those already struggling with limited access to electricity. Besides, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a dysfunction effect on global finance and technology supply chains, further complicating inadequate access to electricity and other renewable energy sources. Even though presumably never explicitly designed to minimize energy demand, carbon emissions or environmental degradation, reactions to the virus have been significantly linked to energy availability and environmental pollution.
The coronavirus crisis morphs into a humanitarian and economic crisis defined by increased uncertainty in several sectors such as the production of oil and ICEVs. Countries that have instated heavy lockdown measures and restricted movement have generally seen a reduction in electricity demand as financial and operational constraints force many production plants to shut down or downsize operations. Various green technologies suppliers have placed employees on furlough and also developed austerity policies and lower production capacity.
The coronavirus has far more disrupted global oil supply than any geopolitical case, undermining oil producers' power to manage markets and pushing down commodity prices for natural gas. Oil and gas demand and prices in China, the US and the European region are collapsing. At the same time, global
supply chains and flows of foreign direct investment in energy resources have been disrupted. Due to a heavy reliance on imported solar photovoltaics from China, where production has declined due to the pandemic, drastic declines are also expected for countries such as India with a reduction in future installed solar power. Besides, solar photovoltaics are solely responsible for attracting about 4% of the entire African workforce. Still, solar companies and businesses are already compelled to slash wages, lay off workers, and continue facing going concern risks. In order to fight the epidemic, policymakers have inevitably redirected public funds in a manner that leaves clean energy incentives and tax credits less accessible.
The international community's concerted efforts towards sustainable energy access have made great strides in advancing SDG 7 in recent times. Different countries and regions have instituted regulations and policies that seek to contain the rising levels of emissions. The collective commitment to climate neutrality has seen considerable investment in sectors such as renewable energy generation and production of EVs. The financial downturn caused by uncertainties over the global health crisis has identified some weaknesses (e.g. the need to raise energy spending in health care facilities). The question is whether the COVID-19 crisis will change international cooperation and what effect it will have on those facing energy poverty. The electrification process decreases energy consumption and air pollution across the energy sector. It has a moderate impact on the energy system's cost in parts that have an abundance of low-cost infrastructure such as the United States.
The coronavirus pandemic has had a global effect that affects most aspects of everyday life. Across all major industries, the effect of the global health crisis on society has been felt, with some environmental gains and major disruptions to economic sectors such as tourism, transport and the global supply chain. The economic crisis has resulted in the international community's adoption of shared objectives to achieve a healthier and more sustainable society. Economic stimulus packages aimed at improving the economic climate have been discussed but are yet to occur due to the more pertinent health crisis. The large-scale road to economic recovery provides a rare opportunity to speed up the transition towards zero carbon emissions, climate neutrality, and the ecosystem's protection.
As their primary source of power and energy, electric vehicles use electricity and therefore need to be recharged. From private home chargers, street charging stations, highway charging stations, and workplace chargers, the new recharging infrastructure development is likely to increase charging points' availability in wider adoption of electric mobility. As EV models' development and adoption are projected to expand, many implications can also be anticipated forthe current electricity infrastructure.
The charging of EVs means an increased need for high energy requirements, only for a limited period of time, with the grid system's incremental load drawing power. In the short term, there could be deficiencies in the grid system. There is also a need to foresee the negative effects on the power distribution network of increased electrification in the automotive industry. Even with relatively low demand, high-performance supercharger stations' development is incredibly profitable, largely due to the variation between business and consumer electricity rates.
With a modest growth potential of electric cars, regional distribution networks' congestion is already a significant problem. Although battery electrical storage technologies can accommodate peak loads, the grid connection essentially restricts the total number of vehicles that can be charged every day. Such mitigation steps include the need to expand the existing power generation and distribution system in order to meet the rising demand for power and energy. In addition to transportation and the energy needed to supply it, Covid-19 has also impacted global energy supply chains as well as the competitiveness of energy producers.
For commercial and industrial loads, electricity demand has decreased, except for the residential load for most of the countries surveyed, as industrial and commercial activities were limited largely because individuals were required to stay and work from home. This has altered the service model for network infrastructure and as a result, the cost of energy has also fallen. Owing to major shifts in energy demand, the functioning of the power generation and distribution has become crucial and government needs to provide a necessity or emergency plan for consumers as well as for utility operators to manage the situation.
One of the practical suggestions to address the deficiencies of the energy sector that's been identified is the democratization ofthe power and energy sector. Smart controls, renewable energy integration, and the capacity to support the grid during any crisis are supported by implementing a microgrid-based power system. Community microgrids capable of delivering vital resources are appropriate tools and techniques for addressing most of a pandemic event's complexities. Another solution identified is the use of hydrogen as an alternative fuel, which can help in advancing decarbonization in the transport sector. The EU and Germany have expressed their interest in investing in alternative fuels in the aftermath of the Covid-19 crisis.
The pandemic consequences have raised numerous concerns and opened the doors to new possibilities and innovations in the energy and power industry. The electrification of the transportation system, propelled by demands for better air quality and much less carbon-intensive economic growth, is emerging as a critical concern in the battle against climate change. This paper illustrates the interdependence between electrified mobility and the production of minerals, metals and materials. This interdependence is based on the use of raw materials in the production of these technologies. Critical raw materials such as copper are more widely used in motors and batteries as a conductive material; demand for light-duty vehicles will also significantly accelerate the shift from steel to aluminum in chassis and body sheets; while the most pervasive batteries in EVs are generally rich in metals such as lithium, cobalt, nickel and manganese. This describes the real importance of lithium ion batteries to the industry's overall growth and the expected increase in production of them.
The key concern is whether any of the developments that will emerge at the beginning of 2020 will lead to more systemic changes, or whether the global economy will simply return to normal operations. GHG emissions decreased by nearly 1 percent in 2009 just afterthe 2008-2009 economic meltdown, but increased by 5 percent in the following years due to economic recuperation expenditure. Transportation is one the industries most affected, and cross-border restrictions on travel may persist throughout 2021, probably 2022. Extended restrictions can fundamentally impair air travel. Transport sector emissions account for about a quarter of the global GHG emissions and are projected to rise quicker than just about any other sector's emissions.
From the other end, in conjunction with social distance guidelines, the stigmatization of mass transit will contribute both to a resurgence in private transportation and a rise in non-motorized transport, such as cycling or walking. The latter contributes to combating the environment by reducing pollutants. A further optimistic indicator for the environment is that during the COVID-19 crisis, despite the overall decline in car sales, electric cars' sales were resilient, speeding the process of electrification of motorized vehicles.
The lEA's Global Energy Review 2020 states that renewable energy has so far been the most versatile source of energy for Covid-19 lockdown interventions as supply cannot be controlled, variable costs are relatively low, and in several areas access to the power distribution network is proprietary. It is also anticipated that the expansion of green energy infrastructure will see the first annual decrease in recent times, with 167 gigawatts (GW) installed globally, 13 % less than in 2019.
The crisis creates an opportunity to envision a sustainable energy paradigm in order to facilitate the transition away from fossil fuels. This structural reset creates an opportunity for ambitious, forwardlooking and long-term plans to be launched, leading to a globally competitive, safe and efficient energy economy which could eventually support the global economy's future growth in a sustainable low- carbon and equitable manner.
To date, the move to renewable energy and power has proceeded slower than expected by the Paris Agreement, due, among other issues, to transition costs, funding constraints and rising unemployment. Emissions reductions and the transition to a renewable energy system, enabled by storage systems and power markets to offset the delivery of grid electricity, would cost trillions of dollars. Because of the effects of increased usage on GHG emissions, a green energy transition is essential.
CHAPTER 5: E: CONCLUSION
Battery-powered EVs are coming to market rapidly. Their popularity presents excellent potential to decarbonize the transport market, but also poses new challenges for energy infrastructures. Public charging stations need to be installed and electricity grids might become overloaded. Breakthroughs in electric engines, energy storage, wireless charging and autonomous vehicles continue to provide new mobility modernization opportunities. The large-scale deployment of renewable energy generators and battery-powered electric vehicles is projected over the coming decades to offset pollution from the electricity and transport sectors. However, the implementation of these technologies could intensify concerns linked to the divergence between supply and demand for power.
The adverse impacts on fuel consumption, greenhouse gas (GHG) and particulate matter emissions as well as mobility costs of road transport globally seem to be well known. Effective measures to reduce such impacts include moving to transport modes that are more fuel efficient and less polluting, such as mass transit and alternative fuel vehicles. Industrial activities have dropped due to the COVID-19- induced lockdown, causing substantial reductions in air pollution from exhaust gases from vehicles, power plants and other sources of fuel combustion emissions in most cities across the globe, providing better air quality. Another positive effect that can be attributed to the COVID-19 pandemic is the unparalleled decline in global CO2 emissions. The dramatic decrease in global GHG emissions was due to a huge drop in overall demand induced by COVID-19.
In the passenger transport market, automation, electrification, and shared mobility are three transformations that have culminated in improved performance, cost reductions, and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Many studies have shown that, considering their relatively higher ownership and operating costs to date, electrified vehicles such as hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), hybrid electric vehicle plug-in (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are especially efficient in tank-to-wheel fuel and emissions savings.
Post COVID-19, society may suffer from a green bounce back. Due to the global pandemic, there seems to be a growing ecological awareness and the adverse environmental impacts of traditional fossil fuel energy systems. While growing environmental awareness may inspire customers to make greener lifestyle choices, it may also lead to increased car ownership at the detriment of mass transit, thereby increasing pollution. It is important to develop strategies that establish an efficient balance between the quality of life and the environmental burden that the world can bear if it is to broaden the limits of environmental sustainability that are guided by zero carbon emission targets.
Despite the growing interest in their implementation in road and air freight, it is challenging for academics and policymakers to establish multiple freight interventions, particularly in anticipation of potential hurdles during last-mile operations. Congestion of regional distribution networks is still a major issue, considering electric vehicles' exponential growth potential. While electrical storage technologies for batteries can handle peak loads, the grid connection effectively limits the total number of vehicles that can be charged daily. A key carbon reduction policy is electrification using decarbonized electricity. End-use electrification can also minimize demand-sector emissions of air pollutants, adding co-benefits to public health systems.
It is tempting to argue that the looming climate change is not our most urgent problem and that its mitigation should be delayed until certainty is restored as the world struggles to cope with a global health crisis. Our current lifestyle choices and overreliance on transport systems based on fossil fuels have significant environmental impacts and our health in extension. It is clear, however that the COVID- 19 pandemic provides valuable lessons for the looming global climate crisis. International crises are not a new phenomenon, but we are now more capable of knowing, avoiding, and handling them than ever before. It is worth noting that while COVID-19 has contributed to a remarkable decrease in air pollution in advanced economies due to lower economic activity on account of mandatory lockdowns, this positive impact caused by the pandemic is only temporary since it does not represent structural shifts in the global economic structures.
Numerous global challenges face the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Growth in particular the Covid-19 pandemic and the subsequent economic downturn. However, globally, the rate of investment in SDGs is low, which jeopardizes the expectations for 2030. More government support will be required for the achievements of the set climatic goals in the post-COVID-19 period. Characteristically, the increase in post-pandemic emissions may eclipse the decline witnessed during the global health crisis unless mitigation measures are based on cleaner and more resilient energy infrastructure to guide the global economy's recovery. Therefore in order to facilitate investment in SDGs, it is important to look for optimal portfolio allocation by institutional investors.
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- Christian Winkler (Author), 2024, Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Automotive Electrification and Climate Goals, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1491467
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Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
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Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
-
Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
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Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
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Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
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Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
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Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
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Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
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Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
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Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X. -
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Upload your own papers! Earn money and win an iPhone X.