Housing plays a crucial role in providing individuals and households with a dwelling, and it encompasses the housing industry, infrastructure, and housing market. Low-cost housing options are essential for individuals with limited financial resources, and housing assistance programs are commonly offered by governmental and non-profit organizations to support those unable to afford market-rate housing. Various types of affordable housing exist, including apartments, townhomes, and single-family homes, often designed for specific groups such as the elderly or individuals with disabilities. Natural materials like bamboo, earth, straw, fiber cement composites, lime mortar, surki mortar, mud, and grass are explored for low-cost housing construction. India, a significant bamboo producer, has 136 species of bamboo, making it a readily available material. Earth has been used as a building material for centuries, and compressed earth blocks and non-erodible mud plaster can address its limitations. Straw, a residual material from agriculture, particularly rice straw, with its high silica content, shows durability potential. Researchers have also shown interest in utilizing natural fibers from various plant sources as alternatives to conventional construction materials. Man-made materials like volcanic ash, aerocon panels, ferrocement, hollow blocks, rice husk panels, and reinforced concrete have been developed and utilized in construction. Precast construction materials, such as precast concrete panels, beams, and columns, offer advantages like rapid manufacturing, quality control, durability, and longevity. The study focuses on investigating a system of precast brick panels with partially precast reinforced concrete connections. The panels are cast using timber molds and affixed onto precast joints, reducing materials and costs compared to conventional reinforced concrete slabs. Overall, the study explores the utilization of natural and man-made materials for affordable housing construction, considering their availability, durability, and cost-effectiveness.
LOW cost housing: innovations in construction
R C Nivita
Abstract:Housing plays a crucial role in providing individuals and households with a dwelling, and it encompasses the housing industry, infrastructure, and housing market. Low-cost housing options are essential for individuals with limited financial resources, and housing assistance programs are commonly offered by governmental and non-profit organizations to support those unable to afford market-rate housing. Various types of affordable housing exist, including apartments, townhomes, and single-family homes, often designed for specific groups such as the elderly or individuals with disabilities. Natural materials like bamboo, earth, straw, fiber cement composites, lime mortar, surki mortar, mud, and grass are explored for low-cost housing construction. India, a significant bamboo producer, has 136 species of bamboo, making it a readily available material. Earth has been used as a building material for centuries, and compressed earth blocks and non-erodible mud plaster can address its limitations. Straw, a residual material from agriculture, particularly rice straw, with its high silica content, shows durability potential. Researchers have also shown interest in utilizing natural fibers from various plant sources as alternatives to conventional construction materials. Man-made materials like volcanic ash, aerocon panels, ferrocement, hollow blocks, rice husk panels, and reinforced concrete have been developed and utilized in construction. Precast construction materials, such as precast concrete panels, beams, and columns, offer advantages like rapid manufacturing, quality control, durability, and longevity. The study focuses on investigating a system of precast brick panels with partially precast reinforced concrete connections. The panels are cast using timber molds and affixed onto precast joints, reducing materials and costs compared to conventional reinforced concrete slabs. Overall, the study explores the utilization of natural and man-made materials for affordable housing construction, considering their availability, durability, and cost-effectiveness.
1. INTRODUCTION
Housing is the act of constructing or providing a dwelling, which may take the form of a house or a flat. The term can also encompass the entirety of the housing industry or market, along with the accompanying infrastructure, including but not limited to roads, utilities, and educational institutions 1. The provision of housing is a fundamental requirement for the physical and emotional welfare of individuals and households. Low-cost housing refers to housing options that are economically feasible for individuals with limited financial resources 2. Housing assistance programmers are commonly provided by governmental or non-profit organizations with the aim of aiding individuals who are unable to afford housing at market rates 3. Affordable housing can be classified into various types, such as apartments, townhomes, and single-family homes, and may be subject to income limitations or designed for specific groups, such as the elderly or individuals with disabilities. Low-cost homes incorporate a variety of materials, including both natural and man-made materials 4.
The natural materials that fall within the scope of this study include bamboo, earth, straw, fiber cement composites, lime mortar, surki mortar, mud, and grass. As per the available data, India is ranked second in the world in terms of bamboo production, with China being the largest producer 5. India is home to a total of 136 species of bamboo, with the north-eastern region alone accounting for 58 of these species 6. These 58 species are distributed across 10 taxa. Consequently, it could be readily obtainable. According to available historical records, it appears that earth has been utilized as a building material by humans for an extensive period of time, making it one of the oldest known building materials 7. The utilization of compressed earth blocks and non-erodible mud plaster can potentially overcome the limitations associated with the material 8. Straw can be considered a residual material resulting from agricultural activities. What is the composition of the residual material left after the separation of grains and chaff, which typically comprises only plant stems, particularly those of cereal crops? According to research findings, rice straw exhibits the highest silica content among cereal straws, thereby rendering it the most durable 9. In the past few years, there has been a surge of interest among researchers in exploring the feasibility of utilizing natural fibers derived from diverse plant sources, including but not limited to biogases, cereal straw, maize stalk, cotton stalk, rice husk/rice straw, etc., as a viable substitute for conventional construction materials 10. The utilization of lime as a cohesive agent is observed in this particular type of mortar. Two types of lime exist: fat lime and hydraulic lime. Prior to utilization, it is necessary to slake the lime 11. The material in question is commonly employed for low-load above-grade structural elements. The present study involves the production of a specific type of mortar through the complete substitution of sand with surki, or through the partial substitution of sand by 50% in the case of fat lime mortar 12. According to research findings, Surki powder is required to have a particle size fine enough to pass through a BIS No. 9 sieve, while maintaining a residue of no more than 10% by weight. Due to the scarcity of caves, individuals constructed dwellings using dried grass and bamboo 13. The structural integrity of the grass and bamboo house was compromised during inclement weather conditions characterized by high winds and rain, leading to its collapse 14. In order to resist, barriers made of stone and mud were constructed, and a mixture of cow dung and mud was employed as a coating. The implementation of green roofs as a measure to mitigate the impact of rainfall on residential structures has been observed 15. The use of vegetation on rooftops has been found to be effective in preventing rainwater from entering the house. However, it has been noted that the maintenance of green roofs is crucial, particularly after severe downpours, as the muck tends to wash away 16.
Various man made materials have been developed and utilized in construction projects. These materials include volcanic ash, aerocon panels, ferrocement, hollow blocks, rice husk panels, sheets, and reinforced concrete (RCC), among others 17-1819. Fly Ash is a byproduct of coal combustion and is composed of mineral residue and fine glass powder that is recovered from the fumes. The principal constituents of fly ash consist of silica, alumina, and iron 20. The Aerocon panels are a type of inorganic bonded sandwich panel that consist of two sheets of fiber reinforced cement enclosing a core made of a mixture of Portland cement, binders, and a siliceous and micaceous aggregate 21. Iron Cement Ferro cement is a composite material that exhibits high strength and versatility. It is characterized by its thin-walled structure, which is composed of cement mortar reinforced with one or more layers of wire mesh. The resulting structure unit is stiff and exhibits excellent performance, while also being lightweight 22. The material in question exhibits the characteristic of complete homogeneity. The Cement Concrete Block is a recently developed type of concrete masonry unit. The aforementioned technology operates on the basis of densification, thereby producing a standardized and uniform masonry component with superior performance characteristics, utilizing a low-slump concrete mixture. India is a significant contributor to the global rice production, with an estimated share of 20%. The country is known for its production of white rice 23. The husk is a residual material generated during the rice milling process, which envelops the paddy grain. The aforementioned material exhibits potential for utilization as an economical building component. The utilization of Mangalore tiles, wooden trusses, and mud tiles in the construction of the house effectively addressed the issue of mud erosion during the rainy season 24. The utilization of stones for wall construction was a laborious and time-intensive process, resulting in an uneven and rough surface. Consequently, the invention of bricks was introduced as a solution. Over time, there has been a shift towards using roofs made of AC and CI sheets instead of mud tiles. This change has resulted in reduced construction time and increased strength, as mortar is now being employed in the walls 25. The current method being utilized in contemporary times is gaining momentum and increasing in popularity. In comparison to the other materials mentioned, it exhibits superior strength and durability. However, a notable drawback is its extended construction time due to the need for on-site mixing and setting. As an alternative, precast materials may be utilized in lieu of reinforced concrete 26.
2. Materials for precasting
The precast construction materials refer to building components that undergo casting at a manufacturing plant before transportation to the construction site for assembly. The utilization of precast concrete as a building material is widely prevalent. Additional instances include precast concrete panels, precast concrete beams, and precast concrete columns 27. The utilization of precast construction materials offers several benefits. The rapid and efficient manufacturing of these components in an industrial setting can facilitate the construction process 28. The high level of quality control observed in these products can be attributed to their production in a controlled environment. The utilization of precast construction materials is known for its durability and longevity, making it a versatile option for various applications 29.
The present study concerns the investigation of a system of precast brick panels.
The composition of the system comprises of pre-manufactured brick constituents and partly precast reinforced concrete connections. Partially prefabricated reinforced concrete joints are covered with panels during installation. The dimensions of a frequently used brick panel are 1040 mm × 640 mm, containing a total of 16 bricks, two 6 mm diameter bars, and M 15 concrete is employed in its construction 30. The dimensions of the partially precast joints (130 mm x 100 mm) and their reinforcing will be determined by the span.
Upon completion of the appropriate curing and drying processes, the panels are affixed onto the partially precast joints, subsequently followed by the application of standard concrete. The panels are cast using well-seasoned timber moulds on a casting platform, and the process does not necessitate any specialized skills. The brick panel exhibits a relatively low weight of 75 kg, thereby facilitating manual handling. During the construction of roofs, partially precast joints are upheld until the concrete of the deck and the concrete over the joints have achieved the required strength 31. The penitentiary's deck concretes are consistently maintained at a thickness of 30 mm. Upon the insertion of 6 mm diameter mild steel bars, with one bar per panel in both directions, the deck concrete has been left. The study reveals that there is a reduction in materials and cost by approximately 30% as compared to conventional RC slabs.
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1 IITM, Material properties and assessment of gypcrete building panels, indian institute of technology, Madras, india; September 2002. Project no. CE/BTCM/2557/2002, 2002
2 Rapid wall manufacturer (2012) Rapidwall installation manual, Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council, Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation, Government of India.
3 Brixi, N.K., Sail, L., Bezzar, A.: Application of ascorbic acid as green corrosion inhibitor of reinforced steel in concrete pore solutions contaminated with chlorides. J. Adhes. Sci. Technol. 36, 1176–1199 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1080/01694243.2021.1962090.
4 Dong, Y., Pei, L., Fu, J., Yang, Y., Liu, T., Liang, H., Yang, H.: Investigating the Mechanical Properties and Durability of Metakaolin-Incorporated Mortar by Different Curing Methods. Materials (Basel). 15, (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15062035.
5 Kumar, K., Bansal, M., Garg, R.R., Garg, R.R.: Mechanical strength analysis of fly-ash based concrete in presence of red mud. Mater. Today Proc. 52, 472–476 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.09.233.
6 Garg, R., Garg, R., Eddy, N.O.: Influence of pozzolans on properties of cementitious materials: A review. Adv. Nano Res. 11, 423–436 (2021). https://doi.org/10.12989/anr.2021.11.4.423.
7 Garg, R., Biswas, T., Alam, M.D.D., Kumar, A., Siddharth, A., Singh, D.R.: Stabilization of expansive soil by using industrial waste. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2070, (2021). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2070/1/012238.
8 Singh, A., Singla, S., Garg, R., Garg, R.: Performance analysis of Papercrete in presence of Rice husk ash and Fly ash. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 961, 012010 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/961/1/012010.
9 Garg, R., Garg, R., Chaudhary, B., Mohd. Arif, S.: Strength and microstructural analysis of nano-silica based cement composites in presence of silica fume. Mater. Today Proc. 46, 6753–6756 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.04.291.
10 Sidhu, R., Bansal, M., Bath, G.S., Garg, R.: Impact of stubble burning on the ambient air quality. Int. J. Mech. Prod. Eng. 3, 72–76 (2015).
11 Rishav Garg, Manjeet Bansal, Yogesh Aggarwal: Split Tensile Strength of Cement Mortar Incorporating Micro and Nano Silica at Early Ages. Int. J. Eng. Res. V5, 16–19 (2016). https://doi.org/10.17577/ijertv5is040078.
12 Garg, R., Garg, R., Eddy, N.O.: Microbial induced calcite precipitation for self-healing of concrete: a review. J. Sustain. Cem. Mater. 12, 317–330 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1080/21650373.2022.2054477.
13 Prasad Bhatta, D., Singla, S., Garg, R.: Experimental investigation on the effect of Nano-silica on the silica fume-based cement composites. Mater. Today Proc. 57, 2338–2343 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.01.190.
14 Fani, G.M., Singla, S., Garg, R., Garg, R.: Investigation on Mechanical Strength of Cellular Concrete in Presence of Silica Fume. In: IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering (2020). https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/961/1/012008.
15 Mehta, S.K., Jain, R., Sharma, S., Bhasin, K.K.: Interaction of poly(ethylene glycol)-400 with tetraethylammonium bromide in aqueous media. J. Mol. Liq. 122, 15–20 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2004.12.007.
16 Kumar, K., Bansal, M., Garg, R.R., Garg, R.R.: Penetration and strength analysis of pervious concrete. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2070, (2021). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2070/1/012244.
17 Biswas, T., Garg, R., Ranjan, H., Kumar, A., Pandey, G., Yadav, K.: Study of expansive soil stabilized with agricultural waste. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2070, (2021). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2070/1/012237.
18 Bansal, M., Garg, R., Garg, V.K., Garg, R., Singh, D.: Sequestration of heavy metal ions from multi-metal simulated wastewater systems using processed agricultural biomass. Chemosphere. 296, 133966 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.133966.
19 Garg, R., Garg, R., Okon Eddy, N., Ibrahim Almohana, A., Fahad Almojil, S., Amir Khan, M., Ho Hong, S.: Biosynthesized silica-based zinc oxide nanocomposites for the sequestration of heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions. J. King Saud Univ. - Sci. 34, 101996 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2022.101996.
20 Garg, R., Garg, R., Khan, M.A., Bansal, M., Garg, V.K.: Utilization of biosynthesized silica-supported iron oxide nanocomposites for the adsorptive removal of heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 1–10 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21111-2.
21 Garg, R., Rani, P., Garg, R., Khan, M.A., Khan, N.A., Khan, A.H., Américo-Pinheiro, J.H.P.: Biomedical and catalytic applications of agri-based biosynthesized silver nanoparticles. Environ. Pollut. 310, 119830 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119830.
22 Eddy, N.O., Ukpe, R.A., Ameh, P., Ogbodo, R., Garg, R., Garg, R.: Theoretical and experimental studies on photocatalytic removal of methylene blue (MetB) from aqueous solution using oyster shell synthesized CaO nanoparticles (CaONP-O). Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22747-w.
23 Rani, S., Sharma, S., Bansal, M., Garg, R., Garg, R.: Enhanced Zn(II) adsorption by chemically modified sawdust based biosorbents. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22963-4.
24 Eddy, N.O., Garg, R.: CaO Nanoparticles. In: Handbook of Research on Green Synthesis and Applications of Nanomaterials. pp. 247–268 (2021). https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-8936-6.ch011.
25 Garg, R., Garg, R., Okon Eddy, N.: Handbook of Research on Green Synthesis and Applications of Nanomaterials. IGI Global (2022). https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-8936-6.
26 Garg, R., Garg, R.: Performance evaluation of polypropylene fiber waste reinforced concrete in presence of silica fume. Mater. Today Proc. 43, 809–816 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.06.482.
27 Bhardwaj, S., Lata, S., Garg, R.: Application of nanotechnology for preventing postharvest losses of agriproducts. J. Hortic. Sci. Biotechnol. 98, 31–44 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1080/14620316.2022.2091488.
28 Bhardwaj, S., Lata, S., Garg, R.: Phyto-mediated green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Acmella oleracea leaf extract: Antioxidant and catalytic activity. Pharmacogn. Mag. 18, 22 (2022). https://doi.org/10.4103/pm.pm_586_20.
29 Garg, R., Garg, R.: Nanotechnology and How it Works. Possible Ways to Use and Apply Nanotechnology. Grin Verlag. (2022).
30 Paul, S., Kaundal, R., Sharma, A., Bhardwaj, S., Garg, R.: Green synthesis and characterization of iron oxide nanoparticles using Centella asiatica extract. Neuroquantology. 20, 2366–2379 (2022). https://doi.org/10.14704/nq.2022.20.11.NQ66234.
31 Lata, S., Bhardwaj, S., Garg, R.: Nanomaterials for sensing and biosensing: applications in agri-food diagnostics. Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 00, 1–18 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2022.2115895.
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- R. C. Nivita (Author), 2022, Low Cost Housing Innovations in Construction, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1367903
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