Digital Divide in Higher Education System in Odisha

Doctoral Thesis / Dissertation , 2022 , 199 Pages

Pedagogy - School System, Educational and School Politics

The perceived difference between those who have access to the newest information technology and those who do not is referred to as the digital divide. The digital divide is commonly measured by means of computer ownership and internet access. The two groups of people on opposite sides of the split are referred to as "haves," or "information rich," or "have-nots," or "information poor," respectively, in literature.

In the "knowledge economy," the former has the most powerful computers and has the finest internet access to strong streams of continuous information, whereas the latter does not. In today's society, information is a "development resource," and the lack of trustworthy information is the heart of underdevelopment. In today's society, information is a "development resource," and the lack of reliable information is the essence of underdevelopment. Information is essential for societal advancements in education, culture, science, and technology, as well as individual personal and professional development.

Apart from greater internet access, there has been an upsurge in web-based educational programs, which have received mixed reviews. The rise of digital libraries merely adds to the problem (also called electronic or virtual libraries). Web-based education is linked to constructivist learning environments, which are technology-driven environments in which students can contribute something meaningful and useful.

Technologies provide students with the ability to explore, experiment, construct, and reflect on their work so that they can learn from it. The use of information resources is important in this method, as it is in many other models, including collaborative learning models. The effective use of information and resources has become increasingly important in academic life, in addition to the workplace and daily life. All of these are susceptible to the digital divide.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction to Study
1. Introduction
1.1. Evolution of Digital Divide
1.2. Indian Scenario
1.3. Factors affecting the Digital Divide
1.4. Inferences of Digital Divide
1.4.1. Economy and Digital Divide
1.4.2. Society and Digital Divide
1.4.3. Culture and Digital Divide
1.4.4. Education and Digital Divide
1.5. Education Sector in India
1.6. ICT & changing role of higher education in India
1.7. India’s Covid-19 Pandemic and Education Scenario
1.8. Digital Divide, Higher Education and COVID 19
1.9. Online Education and Marginality
1.10. Study Area
1.11. Scope of the Study
1.12. Research Questions
1.13. Objective of the study
1.14. The Rationality of the study
1.15. Summary

Chapter II: Review of Literature
2. Introduction
2.1. Digital Divide and Economy
2.2. Digital Divide and Social Aspect
2.3. Digital Literacy, Higher Education and Digital Divide
2.4. Research Gap
2.5. Summary

Chapter III: Research Methodology
3. Introduction
3.1. Exploratory Research
3.2. Types of Data
3.3. Selection of Target Respondents
3.4. Sampling Technique
3.5. Sample Size Determination
3.6. Questionnaire Design
3.7. Pilot Study
3.7.1. Reliability Study
3.7.2. Validity Test
3.8. Hypothesis Development
3.9. Conceptual Model

Chapter IV: Analysis of Data
4. Introduction
4.1. General Information about Respondents
4.2. Information about Internet Usage
4.3. Factors affecting Digital Divide
4.4. Educational Institute wise Perception of the Respondents Regarding Impact of Digital Divide

Chapter V: Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
5. Introduction
5.1.Findings based on General Information about Target Respondents
5.2. Findings about Internet Usage
5.3. Factors Affecting Digital Divide
5.4. Perception of the Respondents towards Digital Divide
5.5. Suggestions
5.6. Scope of Future Study
5.7. Limitations of the Study
5.8. Conclusion
References
Annexure I
Annexure II
Annexure III

I dedicated the thesis to my father

Late Dr. Radheyshyam

Executive Summary

The “perceived difference between those who have access to the newest information technology and those who do not” is referred to as the digital divide (Compaine, 2001b, p. xi). The digital divide is commonly measured by means of computer ownership and internet access (Kastsinas and Moeck, 2002; Parker, 2003). The two groups of people on opposite sides of the split are referred to as "haves," or "information rich," or "have-nots," or "information poor," respectively, in literature. In the "knowledge economy," the former has the most powerful computers and has the finest internet access to strong streams of continuous information, whereas the latter does not (Cullen, 2003, p. 247). In today's society, information is a "development resource," and "the lack of trustworthy information is the heart of underdevelopment" (Kargbo, 2002, p. 97). In today's society, information is a "development resource," and "the lack of reliable information is the essence of underdevelopment" (Kargbo, 2002, p. 97). Information is essential for societal advancements in education, culture, science, and technology, as well as individual personal and professional development.

Apart from greater internet access, there has been an upsurge in web-based educational programmes, which have received mixed reviews (Kahn, 1997). The rise of digital libraries merely adds to the problem (also called electronic or virtual libraries). According to Jonassen et al. (1999), web-based education is linked to constructivist learning environments, which are technology-driven environments in which students can contribute something meaningful and useful. Technologies provide students with the ability to explore, experiment, construct, and reflect on their work so that they can learn from it. The use of information resources is important in this method, as it is in many other models, including collaborative learning models. The effective use of information and resources has become increasingly important in academic life, in addition to the workplace and daily life. All of these are susceptible to the digital divide.

Based on this discussion the entire thesis is divided into five sections as mentioned below:

Chapter I: Introduction to the Study

Chapter II: Literature Review

Chapter III: Research Methodology

Chapter IV: Data Analysis

Chapter V: Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion

Prof (Dr) S. C. Das

Associate Professor

School of Management, KIIT Deemed to be University

Bhubaneswar, Odisha

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Digital Divide in Higher Education System in Odislia” submitted to the KIIT Deemed to be University, Odisha for the award of Degree of ‘Doctor of Philosophy in Management’ is a record of bonafide and original research work carried out by Mr. Tarun Shyam under my supervision. He has completed the research under the regulation of the University. The content of the thesis does not form the basis of the award of any previous degree in this or any other University.

Prof (Dr) S. C. Das

Associate Professor

Declaration of Scholar

I hereby declare that the thesis “Digital Divide in Higher Education System in Odislia” submitted to the KIIT Deemed to be University for the award of the Degree of ‘Doctor of Philosophy in Management’ is an original piece of research work done by me under the guidance of Prof (Dr) S. C. Das, Associate Professor of KIIT Deemed to be University and it has not been submitted to any other University or Institution for the award of any degree.

Mr. Tarun Shyam

Research Scholar

This is to certify that the above statement made by the scholar is correct to the best of my knowledge.

Prof (Dr) S. C. Das

Associate Professor

School of Management, KIIT Deemed to be University

Bhubaneswar, Odisha

The Ph. D, Viva-voce examination of Mr. Tarun Shyam, Research Scholar, has been held on and is recommended for award of the Ph.D. Degree.

Signature of External Examiner

Acknowledgement

To begin, I express my gratitude to the Almighty for providing me with the ability and patience to complete this research project, which is founded on dedication, commitment, and endurance. This dissertation, like any other academic endeavour, would not have been possible without the help of numerous people who have helped in various ways. I'd want to express my gratitude to everyone who contributed so generously to the work described in this thesis.

I would like to take this occasion to convey my heartfelt gratitude to Professor (Dr.) Srikanta Charana Das, my supervisor and guide, for his ongoing inspiration and supervision, constructive criticism, and laborious effort throughout the investigation and production of this thesis. Throughout my PhD career, he has been more than a mentor, and I am eternally thankful for everything he has done for me.

I'd also like to thank the members of my research scrutiny committee, Professor (Dr.) B Chandra Mohan Patnaik, Professor (Dr.) Biswajit Das, and Professor (Dr.) P. Chandrasekhar, for providing feedback at various stages of my research. Despite their time constraints, they provided me with insightful suggestions and recommendations that helped me structure my dissertation.

This dissertation is supported by professors who have provided me with invaluable feedback on my work. I'd like to take this opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to the faculty members at the KIIT School of Management, KIIT University, for their guidance over the years. I'd like to thank everyone at the office and the library for their friendly assistance.

I have no words to express my gratitude to my parents, who have always been generous in bestowing their blessings on me for pursuing various academic endeavours. I am also grateful to my wife Kiran, who has been a constant source of unwavering support throughout the thesis work's progress. Special thanks go to my son Roopesh and daughter Rishika for their love and patience. I hope that I have instilled in them the value of education and hard work, which they will incorporate into their own lives.

I am grateful to my fellow research scholars, as well as my colleagues at KIIT University's ICT Cell, for stimulating discussions and assistance in a variety of areas throughout my research study. I'd also like to thank all of my well-wishers and friends who helped me along the way, both directly and indirectly.

Tarun Shyam

Research Scholar

Figures & Tables

Chapter I

Fig.1.1: Telecommunication sector Revenue and investment as a 6 percentage of GDP in the OECD area (2000-2018)

Fig 1.2: Fixed broadband penetration, historical leading OECD 7 countries, 2000-2019

Fig 1.3: Mobile broadband evolution, OECD area and World, 2000- 8 2019

Figure 1.5: Regulatory Framework of Higher Education 23 Table 1.1: Category wise number of universities 35

Table 1.2: Number of Government & Private Colleges 36 Chapter II

Table 2.1: Summary of Review and Major Determinants (Theoretical 72 Framework)

Chapter III

Table 3.1. List of Initial Variables

Table 3.2 Link of initial variables with research objectives

Table 3.3. Category wise Name of the Institutions Identified for the Study

Table 3.4. Category wise Distribution of the Respondents

Table 3.5. Case Processing Summary

Table 3.6. Cronbach ’s Alpha Value

Table 3.7. Item total Statistics

Table 3.8. KMO Bartlett ’s Test

Table 3.9. Total Variance Explained

Table 3.10. Communalities

Table 3.11. Initial Component Matrix

Table 3.12. Rotated Component Matrix after Varimax Rotation

Table 3.13. Final Rotated Component Matrix

Table 3.14. Component Transformation Matrix

Table 3.15. Final Set of Variables

Figure 3.2 Conceptual Model

Chapter IV

Table 4.1.1. Educational Institutions wise Distribution of the 103 Respondents

Table 4.1.2. Gender wise and Educational Institution wise 103 Distribution of the Respondents

Table 4.1.3. Age Group and Educational Institution wise Distribution 104 of the Respondents

Table 4.1.4. Level of Education and Educational Institution wise 105 Distribution of the Respondents

Table 4.1.5. Educational Institution wise Computer Knowledge

Table 4.1.6. Educational Institution wise Monthly Family Income of 106 the main Earners

Table 4.2.1. Educational Institution wise Number of Computers 107 available at Household

Table 4.2.2. Educational Institution wise Access to Internet at Home

Table 4.2.3. Educational Institution wise Frequency of using Internet

Table 4.2.4. Educational Institution wise Time Spent on Internet

Table 4.2.5. Educational Institution wise Purpose of using Internet

Table 4.3.1a. Gender wise and Access to Internet Cross Tabulation

Table 4.3.1b. Chi Square Test Statistic

Table 4.3.2a Age Group wise and Access to Internet Cross Tabulation

Table 4.3.2b. Chi Square Test

Table 4.3.3a. Computer Knowledge wise and Access to Internet Cross Tabulation

Table 4.3.3b. Chi Square Test

Table 4.3.4a. Family Income wise and Access to Internet at Home Cross Tabulation

Table 4.3.4b. Chi Square Test

Table 4.3.5a. Level of Education wise and Access to Internet at Home Cross Tabulation

Table 4.3.5b. Chi Square Test

Table 4.3.6. Summary of the Hypothesis based on factors affecting Digital Divide

Table 4.4.1a. Group Statistics Related to Variable 5

Table 4.4.1b. t Statistics Table Related to Variable

Table 4.4.2a. Group Statistics Related to Variable 6

Table 4.4.2b. t Statistics Table Related to Variable 6

Table 4.4.3a. Group Statistics Related to Hypothesis 7

Table 4.4.3b. t Statistics Related to Variable 7

Table 4.4.4a. Group Statistics Related to Variable 8

Table 4.4.4b. t Statistics Related to Variable 8

Table 4.4.5a. Group Statistics Related to Variable 9

Table 4.4.5b. t Statistics Related to Variable 9

Table 4.4.6a. Group Statistics Related to Variable 10

Table 4.4.6b. t Statistics Table Related to Variable 10

Table 4.4.7a. Group Statistics Related to Variable 11

Table 4.4.7b. t Statistics Related to Variable 11

Table 4.4.8a. Group Statistics Related to Variable 15

Table 4.4.8b. t Statistics Related to Variable 15

Table 4.4.9a. Group Statistics Related to Variable 16

Table 4.4.9b. t Statistics Related to Variable 16

Table 4.4.10a. Group Statistics Related to Variable 17

Table 4.4.10b. t Statistics Related to Variable 17

Table 4.5. Summary of the Findings

Chapter I Introduction To Study

1. Introduction

The digital divide is the difference between people who don’t have access to information technologies and those who have. The Internet and computers are the most common examples (Dijk, 2017). The digital gap is a barrier to the information society because it indicates a disparity in access and use of information and communication technology (ICT). ICT use is primarily driven by habit, skills, and compassion (Goncalves, 2018). A transition from an emphasis on binary internet access (first-level digital divide) and internet skills and use (second-level digital divide) to a third-level digital divide in which actual benefits of the internet users are considered is needed, according to several scholars (Scheerder, A., 2017 et al.). Rapid technical change usually occurs in waves.

New information and communication technologies (ICTs) are being adopted at breakneck speed, but distribution patterns are less obvious and changing swiftly (Campbell, 2001). To develop an information-centric society, technological change is a major step. A robust IT infrastructure leads to a digital divide, which has an impact on society's growth and development by propelling some people who have access to knowledge and denying others who do not (Malhan, I. V., 2003, et.al). A digital gap is the unequal distribution of ICTs (access to, use of, or influence of ICT) among various groups. These groupings can be classified based on social, geographical, or geopolitical factors (NTIA, 1995).

According to Hargittai (2002), the digital divide study should not be limited to a binary ICT access classification. To comprehend the digital divide, a spectrum of inequalities across population segments should be considered, based on differences in the various dimensions of ICT access (Srinuan, 2012). Norris (2001) and the OECD (2001) also pointed out that there may be a digital divide within and among nations. The digital division on three levels was explained by Norris (2001). The digital divide, or the so-called global divide, has become starkly visible between advanced and emerging economies. The imbalance in access to and use of information and communication technology (ICT) among different sections of a country's society is referred to as the community divide. The varying degrees of ICT access for groups with various socioeconomic characteristics can be noticed in a country.

The democratic gap refers to the inequality in community life between those who use and those who do not use information and communication technologies in the third phase (Srinuan, 2012). The word was loosely used to convey the inequalities between persons using technology-enabled devices or, more specifically, the differences in their Internet admittance at the commencement of study into the digital divide. According to DiMaggio (2001) and Hargittai (2002), the inequality gap study should not be restricted to a unilateral way hence a connection should be there with ICTs. To comprehend the digital divide, it's also necessary to evaluate a spectrum of inequality among population groups, based on variations in several dimensions of ICT access and use (Chakraborty& Bosman, 2002).

Per capita income differentials and human behavior parameters are important in describing digital divisions in Asia and the Pacific region. On the other hand, it is also important to describe regulatory efficiency, in the form of ICT facilities and institutional conditions. In the past decade, several nations have been continually developing ICT infrastructure and services, which have led to the region becoming a world leader in ICTs, despite its low penetration rates (Chakraborty& Bosman 2002). Furthermore, due to the slow pace of reform, competition in domestic fixed-line and internet services sectors has emerged in some countries.

The progress of ICT-enabled services may vary in comparison with European countries as the growth path and government interventions are different. The shift from monopoly to competition is both hard and time-consuming, with various administrative issues and delays. Delays in executing this shift restrict business investment and growth, as well as deter new entrants from investing in infrastructure. As a result, telecom service providers are reluctant to offer new products and technologies, resulting in considerable social losses (Prieger, 2007).

1.1. Evolution of Digital Divide

Information and communication technology (ICT) is one of the key engines powering modern civilization. ICT has swiftly expanded and spread (Nandi, 2002) in all domains of human activity around the world, and this trend continues, particularly in the economic and social realm. ICT allows for interactive communication regardless of distance, volume, medium, or time, while lowering coordination costs (Fletcher et al., 2000). ICT has transformed the way people do business (S. Singh, 2007). The Internet and its low-cost technology, such as e-commerce, have given firms new opportunities and transformed the whole corporate world to be global. The new economy and networked society are rooted in virtual reality. The economic and social absence of the information or knowledge revolution is needed to be connected. This idea of the social polarization between individuals, groups, and regions as long as the observers noted the socio-economic significance of technical transformations, was emphasized because they are separating themselves from instruments and the content of the information revolution (Graham, 2011). Progress in ICT is one of the technological changes defined at the end of the 20th century (Castells, 2001). The focus was on personal computers (PCs), video games, television (TV), and telephones. Even before the invention and coining of electronic computers, there was a widely held belief that communication technology would lead to positive economic and social development on a global scale (Marvin, 1988).

The impacts of one or several of these technologies are the focus of current debates in the social sciences. With the latest developments, the internet became widespread in the 90s to connect multiple forms of ICT. Singer (1970) stressed worldwide dualist technology between rich and poor countries, while UNESCO used the phrase "New World Information Order" (Mowlana, 1997). Similarly, Castells (1998) argues that the digital revolution will increase socio-spatial segregation by resulting in "dual cities" of people with radically distinct knowledge domains. With the expanding number of users on the market, Castells (2001) maintained the growing interest in the worldwide web. He asserted that there were over 800 million computer communications network users in the world in early 2010 and that at the end of 2001 there was a massive increase of over 300 million users. The numbers are projected to continue to grow shortly with reliable projections predicting the billionth regular internet user is expected to arrive in 2020. Despite these forecasts, internet usage is not universal (Srinuan, 2012).

In the US, the 1990s were not just a time of great enthusiasm, as the Eastern Bloc collapsed, but also a time of great expectations, given the rapid expansion of the Internet. Since 1994 (Network Wizards, 1999), this Internet application known as World Wide Web has grown at an exponential rate, coinciding with NCSA's graphical Mosaic interface to "navigate the world-wide website" (Hoffman, Novak, & Chatterjee, 1995). In the early years of digital division research (1999-2002). the focus of research on the notion was on a narrow definition of access. This was physical access: the acquisition of digital media hardware and software and Internet connectivity. The overall demographical access such as income, education, age, gender, and the race was correlated to physical access. Digital Divide Research is an activity that began around the year 2000 with a particular focus on the sciences of communication, sociology, psychology, economics, and education. The science of communication focused on digital media access and use. Sociology emphasized social inequalities as regards resources, capital of all kinds, and social participation. Psychology analyses phenomena such as anxiety and technophobia in computers, as well as attitudes and motives for using digital media (Hoffman et al., 2000).

The rise of ubiquitous computing and peer information production (Graham, 2011) will almost certainly make increasing use of the digital divide for integration with the numerous ubiquitous networking technologies already in use (Greenfield, 2006). The main goal was to equate the 'digital dividend' with internet access, as the internet remains the focal point of most current talks about the ‘digital divide’. Nevertheless, the term can be considered significant, keeping track of concurrent technological changes, rather than having any fixed meaning. The nature of digital divide research was nevertheless extremely descriptive until around 2005 (Van Dijk, 2006). The theory was missing. income, education, age, gender, and ethnicity demographics were stressed in conjunction with physical access. This brief history of the digital divide reveals the symbolic, practical, and opportunistic explanations for the perplexing possibilities of ubiquitous computer and internet use. The inclusion of computers and the internet in numerous worldwide economic declarations emphasize the implicit promises of these technologies and explains why several individuals, organizations, policymakers, and organizations have bought into the dictum that computer use equals economic growth and better social conditions (Stover, 2014).

In practice, the digital divide has established national, state, and local programs, to provide a broad range of institutions with more equipment and connections. The importance of greater computer literacy to employment development through access to equipment and training was a substantial reason for these endeavors. However, there has been a continuous lack of focus on equipment and acceptance of the ostensible need for computer training. Over 10 years from 2008 to 2018, OECD revenues in the telecommunications industry averaged about 2.8% of gross domestic product (GDP). The total growth of sector revenues in the OECD region was slightly negative between 2016 and 2018 as a percentage of GDP. There has also been a downward tendency since 2008, with sector revenues falling from 3.2 percent to 2.4 percent of GDP at the end of 2018. Investment as a percentage of GDP, on the other hand, remained relatively steady over the same period, declining from 0.5 percent to 0.38 percent¹.

Figure 1.1: Telecommunication sector revenue and investment as a percentage of GDP in the OECD area (2000-2018)

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Source: OECD (2020[6]), OECD Telecommunication and Internet Statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/tel_int-data-en (accessed on 18 May 2021).

Canada, the Netherlands, Denmark, France, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States are among the OECD's historic leaders in fixed broadband coverage. Korea was far ahead of the rest of the OECD in the early 2000s. It has a fixed broadband penetration rate of more than 20 subscriptions per 100 people in 2001. Korea has achieved this rate when other OECD countries were still in the early stages of developing residential broadband. However, in the previous two decades, the difference between. OECD countries has narrowed. In June 2019, Switzerland, Denmark, France, and the Netherlands led to fixed broadband penetration². The following figure shows the fixed broad band penetration by OECD countries from the year 2000 to 2019.

Figure 1.2: Fixed broadband penetration, historical leading OECD countries, 2000-2019:

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Source: OECD (2020[8]), Broadband Portal (database), www.oecd.org/sti/broadband/oecdbroadbandportal.htm (accessed on 19 March 2021).

From 2000 to 2019, the number of mobile broadband connections has also increased. Broadband is a crucial driver of economic growth because it increases corporate efficiency, builds human capital through online education and digital civic involvement, creates knowledge-based opportunities, and makes vital services like telemedicine and phone banking more accessible (Prieger, 2012). According to empirical estimates, rural areas in the United States had fewer fixed high speed and mobile providers than metropolitan areas, but mobile providers are slower than fixed providers. Rural locations have less access to mobile broadband than urban areas, although it helps to fill up gaps in rural fixed internet connectivity. The following figure shows the mobile broadband evolution between OECD area, world, and world excluding OECD.

Figure 1.3: Mobile broadband evolution, OECD area, and World, 2000-2019

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Source: OECD (2020[8]), Broadband Portal (database), www.oecd.org/sti/broadband/oecdbroadbandportal.htm (accessed on 19 March 2021.

The presence of PCs and the extent of internet access in homes is a significant determinant of domestic or individual income. The distribution of income is particularly crucial early in the adoption of new technologies, as early and prematurely higher income groups purchase ICTs (OECD, 2001). Learnings and incomes are strongly linked and explain a large amount of the difference in consumption. In addition, those who have better education will have higher access rates at the same level of income. In the OECD countries, mobile network usage increased by 49 percent per year between 1995 and 1999, compared to four percent for fixed networks. In addition, digital services offer more advanced Internet-based services in an increasing number of OECD countries (OECD, 2001). But, as a result of slow access and ongoing price models of providers, mobile Internet access is still relatively expensive. Internet access will get a boost if the price decreases significantly, in particular regarding fixed access prices (OECD, 2001).

1.2. Indian Scenario

India is the second-largest nation behind China in the Asian region. The country has advanced significantly in science and technology, and it is now one of the world's most powerful economies. As a result of knowledge diffusion, ICTs have had a tremendous influence on the formation of Indian society. Today's technology is similar to what machines were during the industrial revolution. They are the most instrumental factors for the overall progress of the countries like India. In today’s scenario, without the application of knowledge-based digital divide techniques, it won’t be possible to survive in the long run. It is important to understand that the world had seen many developments and growth of industries in the different segments but IT-enabled services are the ones that changed the dynamics of the business environment. This change in infrastructure-enabled growth was first observed in developed countries and the same subsequently trickle down to the lowest part of other emerging countries as well. Hence, post-liberalization period India also witnessed the growth of IT-enabled services, and a clear road ap was also developed during this same time frame. With the growth of this new industry, it also came to the notice that IT services started creating disparities as the cost of availing services was not the same for all the segments of the society (N. Singh, 2007).

The key to the information society's growth and development is regarded to include e-learning, e-library, e-health, e-government, and other information society pillars. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan held a world conference in Geneva in 2003 to address this issue. The summit aims to create a shared vision and understanding of the information society, as well as a comprehensive strategy to fulfill that vision within the context of adaptation efforts. There has always been a separation between people who can efficiently utilize IT and those who can't, resulting in a digital divide that is critical to the governments of developing countries (N. Singh, 2007).

IT and computerization started in India in 1978. The Indian government resolved in 1985 to enhance district IT usage. As a central governmental institution, a nationwide program called "DISSNIC," the information system for the National Information Center (NIC), for computerizing all district offices was chosen. It was a huge accomplishment to commission nearly 500 computer centers and connect them to a national network (Dutta, S, 2003). As the IT industry progressed rapidly, remarkable social changes have taken place in India in some places. But this growth has its negative sides as well. People had a fair that it will lead to job loss. People's attitudes have shifted dramatically in recent years. Many state governments are promoting the IT industry. "Cyber City" refers to cities like Hyderabad, Pune, and Bangalore (N. Singh, 2007). The digital divide in India is not only limited to less developed states with traditionally weak infrastructures (Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Orissa) but also in developed states (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh) (Rao, 2005).

In India, the development of telecommunications has gained momentum over the last decade. Attempt to improve telecommunications infrastructure has been made both by government and non-governmental entities. The idea is that the modern technologies of telecommunications should serve and cover all sections of India's diverse culture to convert it into a technologically sound country. Different studies such as DiMaggio et al., 2001 have shown that in developing countries such as India, the problem of the digital divide is greater. Although the largest cities are in developed states, states like Bihar and Orissa are less developed than many others. The problem needs to be further examined in three sections - the division of teledensity, the division of mobile phones, and the division of the internet between rural and urban India (Singh, 2007).

Providing universal and cost-efficient access IT enabled facilities for narrowing the digital divide in which the priorities are the development of telecommunications and IT infrastructure. In 2003, India's government marked the 150th anniversary of Indian telecommunication. In the improvement of its telecoms sector, the country has gone a long way. Only 80,000 telephone subscribers were there at the time of independence, mostly in government organizations³. Professionals in software contribute more than a quarter of the overall export income of the country. Rapid technical advancements have also resulted in a vast division of information in the country. Unfair information linkage has placed the government in a difficult position, forcing it to take action to close the gap. The government and non­governmental organizations discussed some of their initiatives to close the country's digital gap (S. Dutta, 2003). Digital consumption is being driven by both the public and private sectors. Over 1.2 billion Indians have been enrolled in the government's biometric digital identification program, Aadhaar, and over 10 million businesses have been put onto a shared digital platform via a Goods and Services Tax code. The problem is that ICT adoption varies greatly not only across nations but also inside a country with a digital divide (Kaur & Singh, 2016). There is a significant urban-rural digital divide in India, as evidenced by telecommunications, mobile users, and internet users’ indices. The infrastructural telecommunications gap, which results in an information gap in rural and urban areas, is one of the major reasons for the country's continued digital divide between rural and urban areas (Kaur & Singh, 2016).

Telecommunications services constitute the backbone for these applications, as well as several other important service sectors in the economy, such as banking, health care, education, and so on. Mobile telephones have become much more available than a communication device because of increased access to smartphones at much cheaper rates, and various services becoming increasingly connected through mobile phones, the Internet, and other digital delivery modes,4G services are growing and have given an incentive to the data revolution that took advantage of these services. The future of the telecommunications landscape is hopeful with the advent of 5G technologies, and the evolution of 5G would highlight various new applications/techniques such as artificial intelligence, quantum computing, virtual reality, etc. 5G produces data with an unprecedented speed and a huge volume (TRAI Annual Report, 2019-2020).

In India, predicting the future of the digital divide is extremely difficult. However, the current situation in India is not frightening. The digital divide is indeed closing (Singh, 2010). Government measures and public-private partnerships are expected to help close the digital divide (Singh, 2010). However, because gender, age, culture, language, sex, and other characteristics are all key components of daily activities and experiences, including the virtual world, the digital divide in India cannot be bridged.

1.3. Factors affecting the Digital Divide

The amount of interaction between people and computers has expanded dramatically in the twenty-first century. If we are to completely immerse ourselves in the economic, political, and social aspects of the world, computers and the internet are becoming increasingly crucial. “Digital Divide" refers to the widening difference between rich, urbanites who have an internet connection and poor, rural, and disadvantaged persons in society. Many aspects of life and society around the world have been radically impacted by the rapid development and distribution of ICTs. The Internet, in particular, has had a huge impact on how we live, communicate, work, learn, and socialize. ICTs have become an indispensable aspect of modern life (Acilar, 2011). Many factors affect internet access. Some of the major digital inequality gaps include:

a) Income inequality: The existence of a personal computer and internet at home is mostly determined by the household or individual income. Not surprisingly, the levels of household incomes play an important part in the widening gap, in the direct connection with education. Because of lower levels of income, poor neighbourhoods lack infrastructure which is found in affluent communities. The telecommunications facilities for wealthier communities are easier to access. Poverty in less developed neighbourhoods, therefore, makes it less attractive for external investment, and that further exacerbates the divide. In the spread of new technology, the distribution of income is important because higher income groups take an early lead in acquiring ICTs (OECD Report, 2018).

b) Gender and age divide: The Internet gender gap in developing countries, in particular, is striking according to a 2018 report by OECD. Although mobile access is very well extended, it is not equally widespread. Women are still trailing behind their male counterparts. 1.2 billion women in poor and middle-income nations do not have internet access, even if they do have cell phones. During and after school, women use computers and the internet less frequently than men (Hakkarainen et al., 2000). Women are less likely than men to know about using a phone, accessing the internet, and using social media to safeguard data in the digital world (functions underlying life, work, and people of all ages). There is a distinction between the lowest level of competence such as mobile applications and the most sophisticated computer coding tools for analyzing massive data sets (West et al., 2019).

For older people, penetration of computers and internet access is usually lower than for younger people. In younger age groups, usage has tended to grow faster. The 35-45-year age group seems to be the highest users. The patterns of age between countries are more or less similar (OECD Report, 2001). Many older adults are physically or mentally disabled and financially insecure. They can't afford an internet connection or don't have transportation, which puts their health at risk, as well as their sadness and desire to use computers in public places. Rich older people who live alone may find it beneficial to use the Internet to obtain health information, shop, bank online, and communicate with friends and family via email or social media. They would also benefit from the Internet (Cotton et al., 2013).

c) Social divide: Internet access brings people together who share common interests and social circles. The social stratification of internet use has been impacted more than ever before in communities that are and are not connected to the Internet. Unconnected groups are separated because they cannot have the advantages of connected groups over the internet. This is evidenced by cultural differences in access to and effective use of technological resources between and within countries. Once connected, the internet and ICTs can assist people in developing their future social and cultural capital (Acilar, 2011). Another technique to accomplish recurrent contact is through the use of the internet (Mossberger et al., 2006). Repeated connections, chat rooms, and game sites are all possible with Internet networking and social network access. When someone has access to ICT connectivity, he/she has the facilities to communicate, understand and use the knowledge that ICTs provide and he/she becomes a "digital citizen" (Mossberger et al., 2006).

d) Disability divide: Persons with physical disabilities often find access to the Internet disadvantaged. Skills may be needed, but they would be unable to use the hardware and software that they have. Some areas of the world are isolated from the World Wide Web, despite its vast potential due to the lack of digital learning; low educational levels, and limited broadband facilities. In the case of persons with disabilities, about non-disabled people, there are inequities in access to information systems. According to Fox, S. (2013), 54 percent of disabled people have Internet access at home, compared to 81 percent of families with Internet access but no disabled person. A person with a quadriplegic disability, for example, can prohibit himself from engaging with a computer screen or smartphone. For people with cognitive and auditory impairments, access to technology and home internet is still limited. There is fear that increased IT technology use would either improve accessibility by creating possibilities for persons with disabilities or aggravate existing inequity and push people with disabilities further behind in society (Lazer et al., 2017).

1.4. Inferences of Digital Divide

The digital divide established a new paradigm for differences in culture that has had a significant impact on people's lives all over the world. In today's environment, having access to the Internet causes full inequality and alienation (Steele, 2018). The study of ICT use across countries reveals immense changes in other life facets, given the internet's central position in our daily lives. Although income and literacy levels are the key causes of the digital gap, they only account for a part of ethnic and racial disparities in access to homes and workplaces. Education, job prospects, connectivity, politics, customer happiness, health information, community participation, governance, and emergency information are all impacted by the digital divide (Steele, 2018). Because technology is so crucial to a country's progress, industrialized countries must discover ways to bridge the digital divide. Some efforts to fill this hole, such as scholarships and awareness camps, have shown to be good, while others, such as supporting public technology experience, have proven to be unproductive and, at times, detrimental (Mossberger et al., 2006).

1.4.1. Economy and Digital Divide

Telecommunications services stimulate economic growth. A country's economic efficiency is enhanced by broad internet use. People may shop online and avoid traffic jams. Unprocessed purchases are a straightforward approach to gaining economic power. Especially developing countries, with insufficient ITC integration, are widening their economic gap. The provision of telecommunications services is critical to economic development, and the two are inextricably linked. Surprisingly, one of the primary causes and implications of the digital gap is social standing. Citizens can easily participate in economically beneficial actions such as trading thanks to the widespread use of the internet. They can shop and compare prices online, participate in online auctions, and conduct healthy, stable, and economically empowered transactions online. Trade is becoming hectic for the group which lacks technology access and returns are being reduced, thus maintaining an extensive economic gap between developing and underdeveloped nations. Since rich countries can compete, emerging markets cannot continue to rely on grants and donations. ICT integration affects a company's performance and, as a result, the flow of capital among people.

1.4.2. Society and Digital Divide

The digital divide has worsened demographic stratification due to their literacy levels, resulting in a class of people who have Internet access and a class of people who do not. The digital divide in society is exacerbated by factors such as age, race, and ethnicity. Because of the digital gap, people are being judged based on their ability to access internet resources and the benefits that come with it. The technology generates new alignments between people who have and those who do not have internet access. Those who have limited access continue to postpone their creation and growth. Integrating ICT programs has been important in developing people's social experiences. Social media platforms such as Facebook and Instagram aided in collaboration and the maintaining of intimate connections with friends and family. Technology has a significant impact on social connections and as we incorporate ICT into our connections, new social possibilities emerge. People can now keep in touch with old friends or make new ones in packed chat rooms. Furthermore, the Internet provides a wealth of knowledge on people's cultures and religions, all of which are critical to social ties. Individuals with internet connectivity have access to a broad range of resources, resulting in a socioeconomic divide between the wealthy and the poor. In societies where rich people have computers and internet access but poor people do not, such segregation has the potential to spark societal upheaval. On a personal level, attempts to bridge the gap caused by inappropriate acts such as robbery have resulted in the breakdown of societal peace.

1.4.3. Culture and Digital Divide

Technology influences different cultures, both positively and negatively. Connections, communications, and art have all benefited immensely from technological advances. However, it appears that certain rituals and cultural practices have not been forgotten. The developed world undergoes significant cultural changes as a result of adopting new Internet-acquired cultures, while the developing countries with restricted internet access maintain their culture. The development of developed countries is critical to closing the global ICT divide (Acilar, 2011). In the case of underdeveloped countries, increasing technological expertise is a quick approach to boost economic growth. The effect on the downside is sobering and straightforward to lessen, if not remove, because the digital gap is vital to the defence of specific communities.

1.4.4. Education and Digital Divide

The internet is a vast repository of knowledge. We can now learn specialized skills on several educational channels more than ever before. Academic achievement and excellent scientific research have been related to ICT access. It gives the mind the ability to educate itself. This dynamic sector is crucial if an individual and society are to achieve remarkable success (Albert et al. 2019). The Internet provides a wide array of knowledge and information. Computers are well organized and transmitted over the Internet and are a common activity within the developed world. Computers are the right to use computers. Since users may relate to it easily, access to and availability of ICT has been related to academic performance and solid study. Education is a very complex field, and it is important to keep up with the latest findings. Our research capabilities will be revolutionized and updated as a result of the availability of Internet access. The insufficiencies of ICT devices in developing countries have rendered the already weak education system even ineffective (Billon et al, 2009). Government efforts are now being made to make use of schools' ICT services to improve standards of education. Every student was successful, including installing computing laboratories and providing laptops, among other strategies.

The integration of IT in education has transformed society drastically, especially for those who can access the services. In contrast, the people who cannot access these services remain in the dark, which leads to a new stratification of society, whereby the has-not remain conservative to the old ideologies while the has-not become more vibrant with new ideas. The huge discrepancies in access to IT can be geographic or socio-economic and this rift adversely affects the education sector. The effects of the digital divide are perceived at all levels of life, and how the digital divide concerns education should be questioned. Access to ICT is a broad topic in this era of technology which involves access to equipment, software, accessories, and networks, and unlimited access to reliable information, in particular in the formal education setting. Because they do not have access to the internet, low-income families have restricted access to information, which is crucial for their education and new ideas. As a result, the majority of students in low-income areas enroll in theoretical programs that do not require considerable study. Because of the scarcity of information available to such students, they frequently avoid enrolling in classes or, if they do, perform poorly.

Many universities around the world are currently employing technology, and the vast majority are online activities, including tasks and the display of learning material. This makes superior students more competitive against their less privileged counterparts. The poor will be left without critical information on the internet, and they will always be lagging, and this can be synthesized by poor performance. If the gradation system is made online, people in the lower divisions are unable to monitor and strategize their progress and thus are often not motivated to continue. Education needs to be liberating and often regarded as a living factor that standardizes. By gaining knowledge, students can face life situations and offer solutions to promote a country's development. The vast digital gap in education is a key impediment to the developing world's progress because it prevents it from inventing new technologies and doing research to improve people's living conditions.

This research is based on the effect of the digital divide on the education sector in Odisha, India. The next sections will concentrate on the education sector of India and the influences of the digital divide on this sector. The study will help identify and sensitize the digital divide in the higher education system, which will enable governments to modify policies in the future so that the digital divide gets narrowed. This research will help students and other stakeholders indirectly access digital consumption and benefit from it.

1.5. Education Sector in India

Education is essential for achieving human potential, building an equitable society, and advancing national progress. India's continued rise and global leadership in economic development, social fairness and equity, scientific innovation, national integration, and cultural preservation are critical for ensuring equitable access to high- quality education. In the next decade, India will have the world's greatest youthful population, and we will shape their destiny by providing a high education.

The education sector in India is a developing sector, though it is a huge field because of its low literacy rates, high urban concentration, and increasing per capita income. Higher education is becoming increasingly important for developing countries, particularly those with service-led growth like it is in India. Higher education's objective is to develop information while also encouraging socially useful skills and critical thinking (A. Singh, 2016). There will be four guiding principles in the development of higher education in India in the twenty-first century: access, equity, accountability, and quality.

In India, education is imparted through the public and private sectors, with three levels of supervision and funding: central, state, and local. In India, from at least the 5th century BC Takshila was the earliest recorded higher education school, and it is arguable whether it might be considered a university. Nalanda University was recognized as the world's earliest university education system in the modern sense. In Indian society, the British Raj laid the groundwork for western education (Patel, 2013). The Indian Constitution recognizes education as a fundamental right in several areas. The majority of Indian institutions are run by the Union or state governments. India has made significant progress in increasing primary school enrolment and literacy to nearly two-thirds of the population. The enhanced education system in India is generally cited as a key component in the country's economic progress.

After India gained independence in 1947, the first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, is credited with fostering public education. Maulana Azad, India's first education minister, envisioned a unified education system with strong central government control over education across the country (Patel, 2013). It could also formulate national education development strategies and control certain sectors of Indian education. The National Education Policy was developed by the Indian government in 1968 and 1986. (NEP).

Over the years, India's social, economic, and worldwide development has changed. Following the 2011 census, India 2011 has a literacy rate of 74.04%. The Right to Education Act was introduced in India in 2010. This Act's main aim was to provide all children aged between 6 and 14 with free education. The Indian government committed itself to improve the quality of education provision within the 12th Five Year Plan for 2012-2017. The figures below demonstrate the level of literacy between 2001 and 2011.

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Figure 1.4: Literacy Rate in India (2001 and 2011)

Source: http://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SelectedSocioEconomicStat isticsIndia2017_27oct17.pdf

The Government has struggled to improve its citizens' education. It is predicted that 104.62 million new workers will enter the labour market by 2022. As a result, India would need to produce 8.1 million jobs per year⁴. The present system of education in India consists of primary, secondary, senior secondary, and higher education. The creation of skilled workers is an important area of technological and vocational education. It increases productivity in the industry and improves the quality of life. Technical training is generally referred to as post-secondary training and offers practical training to work as technicians or supervisors in general. Vocational training refers to lower-level training and education for skilled and semi-qualified individuals in a variety of occupations that do not lead to a higher educational degree. The Annual Status Report on Education (ASRE) reports shows that, while students graduate each year in higher education, very few perform at their desired level (S. Menon, 2020). The pandemic has led to an increase in online training, and these trends are likely to continue. The ASRE 2020 report showed that this year 5.3% of rural children in the six to ten years of age bracket did not enroll at school, compared to 1.8% in 2018.

The climate is evolving rapidly in the information landscape. Many unqualified workplaces around the world can be filled by computers, while the demand for skilled people, including mathematics, computer science, data science, as well as multidiscipline skills in science, social science, humanities, and technology, is especially large. With climate change, increased emissions, and dwindling natural resources, the world's electricity, water, food, and sanitation requirements will shift dramatically, necessitating the need for new skilled labour, especially in the biological, chemical, physical, and agricultural, climatic, and social sciences sectors. As India develops as one of the world's three major economies, demand for humanities and art will rise. The National Education Policy 2020 (NEP 2020), which spells out a vision for the country's new education system, was ratified by India's Union on July 29, 2020. The Indian government produced the New Education Policy of 2020 to succeed the 34-year-old National Policy on Education, which was drafted in 1986. The Union Cabinet has approved a new education strategy that includes comprehensive academic and educational reforms, including instruction. The goal of this new policy is to instill in students a deep sense of pride in themselves as Indians, as well as to create knowledge, skills, values, and provisions which encourage responsible involvement with human rights, environmental sustainability, global welfare, expressing a truly international citizen (NEP, 2020).

The New Education Policy extends the age of compulsory education from 6­14 years to 3-18 years. The NEP has so far opened the school curriculum to children aged 3-6 years for three years. The new system would consist of 12 years of formal education and three years of Anganwadi work (pre-school education). The Higher Education Commission of India (HECI) would be established as an overarching framework for higher education, except medical and legal education, under the new strategy. The same regulatory, accreditation, and academic criteria will apply to both undergraduate and post-graduate institutions. Under NEP 2020, the division between science and arts, between curricular and extracurricular activities, and between professional and university streams will not be rigid. Students can choose topics across the streams as per their choice. In sixth grade at schools, vocational training starts and includes internships. Taking the current situation into account, the policy aims to encourage online learning by offering the correct digital infrastructure and bridging the digital gap that exists.

India’s education industry has seen a huge growth in the number of universities and colleges since independence. Indian education management is beset by over­centralization, red tape, and a lack of accountability, transparency, and professionalism. The administrative burden on universities has expanded considerably as a result of the expansion of linked colleges and students, and the primary concentration on academics and research has deteriorated. By 2020, India will have over 1000 universities, with 54 Central Universities, 416 State Universities, 125 Deemed Universities, 361 Private Universities, 7 State Legislative Institutes, and 159 National Institutes, including IMI, AIIMS, IITs, IIITs, IISERs, and NITs (Press Information Bureau, Govt. of India, 2020). According to the MHRD in 2020, other institutions include 52,627 universities, including public universities, private colleges, independent institutes, and universities that work inside the MHRD. Universities are divided into three categories: traditional universities, deemed universities, and nationally significant institutions. Deemed Universities are established by central authorities during the formation of Conventional Universities by the Act of Parliament or State legislatures. Parliament has designated National Institutes of Importance (Ravi, 2015). The regulatory framework of the Indian higher education sector is depicted in the figure.1.5.

Figure 1.5. Regulatory Framework of Higher Education

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Source: https://www.drishtiias.com/to-the-points/Paper2/higher-education-in-india-1 , accessed on 25.03.2021

India's presence on the global map is visible, but the country is in the transit state to fulfil everybody's objectives and expectations. The recent initiatives of the government are welcomed but must be speeded up in their implementation. Global reforms in higher education have been significant and consistent. India will depend substantially on its human capital to be a globally competitive country. The presence of huge challenges calls for choosing the successful strategies carefully that lead to real and lasting results. Studying in Indian higher education needs, challenges and opportunities would help take the necessary steps to confront the challenges.

1.6. ICT and changing role of higher education in India

“The university is a machinery whereby education facilities are provided to all those who are intellectually capable of using those facilities to their best advantages but who cannot avail themselves of those facilities for want of funds or other handicaps in life,” said Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar (Bombay, Debate to the Legislative Council, 27th July 1927). With the help of information and communication technology, the purpose of education has extended to nearly every aspect of life. The use of ICT in education has changed dramatically during the previous 20 years. The importance of ICT education and acceptance as a social necessity has increased in today's environment-conscious world. Social acceptance is essential for the improvement of mobility in society and the existence of a level playing field for equity and social justice. Qualitative education is not restricted to the structure of the classroom. Both students and institutions are highly interested in the contemporary tools of ICT like eLearning and online learning and information-raising. (R. Nayak, 2011). The Higher Education ICT Policy aims to prepare young people for creative participation in building, sustaining, and growing a knowledge society that will lead to a whole country's socioeconomic development and global competitiveness. Introducing ICT in higher education will have profound effects on the entire process of education, from investment to the application of technology in key areas like equity, management, effectiveness, pedagogy, and quality issues (Munoz-Repiso et al., 2006).

ICT in India is seen to be a medium to be globalized. Indian technology entrepreneurs in the United States have successfully excelled in Indian services software and the IT-enabled industry has grown rapidly, particularly in its export segment (Chandrasekhar, 2000). The government invests heavily in ICT. The NEP stresses the importance of ICT in raising higher education enrolment rates in the sphere of higher education. In India, there is a high dropout rate in school, and it is necessary to figure out how to minimize this number. In the same way, we need to boost the number of students in higher education. As a result, by making education more participatory through the use of ICT, we may radically transform the way our educational system operates. We should also address the difficulties of costs and the availability of trained teachers when delivering education using ICT.

The ICT system has far reached influenced the higher education system in every country in our times. One of these countries is India. India is transforming into a knowledge-based economy that cannot function without the use of information and communication technologies (Chakraborty et al., 2018). The gap between the demand for higher education and the actions governments and institutions are taking to deploy ICT must be bridged. Collaboration between the public and private sectors is required to close the gap. The Educational ICT Policy should seek ways to use ICT to improve higher education institutions' capacities. According to a recent study, innovations such as delivering messages via WhatsApp are quite efficient in spreading education. Similarly, YouTube will contribute significantly to the dissemination of education through video sharing. Higher education in India has grown in importance over the last 10 years as the government recognizes that education is India's greatest strength.

Higher education programs in India consist of diplomas, Graduation, Postgraduate Degree, Doctorate, Post-Doctoral Degree, and Fellowship - all of these offer the applicants a program that aims to enhance their knowledge for practical application in colleges, institutions, universities, and research centres (Chakraborty et al., 2018). In India, a large number of government or private institutions have been set up. The main purpose of education is to make the best use of their input resources including teachers, classrooms, libraries, and laboratories to provide knowledge. Each program has specific results, but the most common result is to install knowledge into incumbents for further study or professional skills. Integrating computer-mediated communication with supporting tasks for teachers, presents a great challenge. A powerful teaching environment through a computer-mediated network can also be created for teachers in which high standard content can be presented and the incumbents can be given authentic tasks irrespective of time and place (Chakraborty et al., 2018).

Enhancing and improving educational quality is a key concern, particularly when education is spread and developed. ICTs can improve education quality in a variety of ways, including enhancing student involvement and passion, making basic skill acquisition easier, and improving teacher training. ICTs can also be utilized to enable and modify a correctly utilized environment to encourage a move to a learner­centered setting (Sarkar, S., 2012). ICTs can be employed in the form of video, television, and computer multi-media software that mixes sound, transcripts, and multi-coloured movements to deliver entertaining, thinking-inductive, and dependable content that keeps students involved in the learning process. To entice students to listen to its interactive programs, the radio uses songs, sound effects, adoptions, satirical comedies, and extra performance collections (Sarkar, S., 2012).

Several initiatives in recent years have emphasized the importance of ICT in higher education. Various projects have resulted in decreased costs and increased openness. India has taken significant steps in terms of content distribution and increased IT-based training. Gyan Darshan for example was introduced to school children, university students, and adults in 2000 as part of broadcast educational programs. In the same way, the broadcasts by institutions such as IGNOU and IITs were another major step for Gyan Vani (Pegu, 2014). Under the sensible initiative of the UGC, education programs are broadcasted on national channels such as Door- Darshan and Gyan-Darshan daily. E-Gyankosh was launched by IGNOU in 2005 as a knowledge repository to preserve digital learning resources. Nearly, 95% of the printed materials of IGNOU have been digitized via a repository upload. A further joint IITS and IISC initiative, technological education, was initiated in 2001 by the National Program on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL) (Pegu, 2014). In 2009, the Government approved the landmark 'ICT Education Mission.' The National Education through ICT Mission is a core program, presented by the HRD Ministry and approved by the Economic Affairs Committee of the Cabinet (CCEA). The mission has planned to develop and standardize digital content for the Indian higher education sector in a wide variety of initiatives. The Mission aims to meet the educational needs of 500 million individuals in the country (Pegu, 2014).

The Ministry of Human Resources and Development (MHRD) has established several efforts to help students, scholars, teachers, and lifelong learners overcome distance learning obstacles. From elementary school students to post-graduates, these programs cater to a wide spectrum of educational needs. DIKSHA is a national educational portal for grades 1 to 12 that was established in September 2017 for all states and the federal government. DIKSHA is available as a website and as a mobile application. DIKSHA offers access through various uses and alternatives such as QR- coded Energized Textbooks (ETP), teachers' courses, quizzes, etc. to a wide range of curricular-linked e-content. Vidya Daan, a statewide content contribution program that employs the Diksha platform and technology to enable educational institutions, private organizations, and individual experts to submit or donate e-learning resources for classroom usage, was launched in April 2020. (India Report-Digital Education, 2020).

Swayam Prabha DTH channels support and reach people without internet access. The MHRD devotes 32 channels to television programs of the highest level. School and higher education channels are allocated separately. It provides live interactive sessions with experts from home to Skype on these channels. Online NIOS MOOC courses are available through the SWAYAM site; approximately 92 courses have been commenced, with 1.5 crore students enrolled. SWAYAM makes all courses available to students and teachers, including text, videos, and evaluation questions. The Ministry also has a 'One-Stop Education Portal' called 'SAKSHAT.' SAKSHAT is responsible for uploading the high-quality e-content in all disciplines and subjects once developed. Many projects are completed, and the way teaching and learning are done in India is expected to change.

Making the most of the potential generated by the spread of ICTs in higher education is a serious problem. Nonetheless, because it can alleviate some of the country's higher education system's challenges, it has become an important support system for higher education. The employment of diverse ICT instruments and technology boosted not only the flexibility with which education was delivered, but also expanded community involvement, teaching experience, administration, and research in other areas of educational institutions. This research paper explores the various challenges and opportunities to use ICT as tools to improve the educational quality in Private as well as Government Universities.

1.7. India's Covid-19 Pandemic and Education Scenario

During lockdown for the unique corona viral disease 2019, the whole elementary and higher education system in India, as well as around the world, failed (COVID-19). Educational systems all across the world have been vulnerable as a result of the Corona virus. Given our uncertain futures, society clearly demands adaptable and stable educational systems (Ali, 2020). Governments and university institutions around the world are launching several programs to increase virus education in response to the COVID-19 epidemic. However, there is disagreement and confusion over what to do, how to teach, teacher and student workloads, and the implications for educational equity (Zhang, Wang, Yang, & Wang, 2020). There is no doubt that institutions that do not have such measures of preparation and planning now need to implement them to prevent the exaggerated demands and tensions arising from rapid adoption. In this crisis, there is a clear need for online learning after secondary education expertise, and the idea that institutions need to develop this skill should be recalled.

According to UNESCO, around 264 million children and adolescents were out of school in 2017, and the epidemic has aggravated this issue. As the COVID-19 pandemic spread, online education became the only alternative, and schools, colleges, and institutions should not be closed indefinitely (Martinez, 2020). Therefore, this was the time for serious rethinking, revamping, and redesigning the education system in a very demanding context. Informal and non-formal training also had a huge impact. But it was a well-conceived belief that the high position of formal education cannot be replaced by a pedagogical approach because of the direct interaction between teachers. Following the COVID 19 crisis, e-learning evolved into a pedagogical shift away from traditional approaches, moving from the classroom to the zoom, personal to virtual, and from seminars to webinars (Mishra et al., 2020). According to Lederman (2020), the COVID-19 problem has compelled both students and teachers to accept the interactive academic experience as the overall benefit of online learning. Teachers were able and provide for children's digital abilities that are on the border of cyber risk and educational accomplishment using digital intelligence (DQ Institute 2019), which is especially important in future pandemics where children rely entirely on online schooling. Furthermore, during a COVID-19 period, online learning provides a sense of psychological security to the community.

Tam and El-Azar (2020) argued that resilience must be built into our educational structures, and they described three developments that could occur in future transitions increased educational creativity, a strengthened educational connection between the public and private sectors, and the digital divide gap. Without the rigorous use of online resources, the post-COVID-19 outbreak educational situation will be difficult to handle. After witnessing the dreadful corona virus, students will face a slew of challenges, including quality education, practical training, laboratory work, library services, peer tutoring, remedial instruction, science, and creativity. Furthermore, students' experience will be quite valuable. Therefore, the attempted solution for education tangles after COVID-19 is to keep the balance of online and offline teaching (Mishra et al., 2020). Digital technology has accelerated lock-down. It has provided an opportunity for new and better professional skills and knowledge to be developed more efficiently and effectively through online learning (Jena, 2020).

The Indian government has taken several precautions to prevent COVID-19 pandemics from spreading. On March 16, 2020, the union government proclaimed all educational institutions in the country to be closed. The UGC, India's apex regulatory agency for higher education, has taken the present learning situation seriously and has taken proactive measures to address the current half-year course and examination deadlock by releasing an academic calendar circular in responding to recommendations from a UGC committee. It was also determined that all Indian universities must provide 25% of their curriculum through online education and 75% face-to-face engagement (UGC, 2020). The government's digital India goal has emerged as a vital tool for fixing the current crisis, thanks to Covid-19. Education­based on technology is more transparent. With colleges and schools refusing to participate in this challenge, the Indian government, state governments, and private institutions have taken the appropriate steps. For pupils to continue learning, the MHRD has set up online portals and teaching channels, as well as direct-to-home television and radios. Students used popular social media apps like WhatsApp, Zoom, Google Meeting, Telegram, YouTube Live, and Facebook for online study throughout the lockdown. E-Broucher, a single platform that collects all digital content on the internet for education, was the MHRD's ICT endeavour (https://mhrd.gov.in/ict- initiatives).

Many institutions have carried out online faculty development programs to enhance faculty's ability to deliver. There is no great difference in the feeling that faculty can use PPT, play videos, and board and marker as regular classroom sessions in both online and offline sessions (Shenoy et al., 2020). During this period of lock­out, post-graduate students can access eBooks, online classes, and study materials. The importance of this platform was that these amenities could be accessed throughout the day without the need for the Internet. Many colleges have taken free online classes for pupils during the lockdown. Students were given access to the E-Library and E-Books. Aside from regular virtual class attendance, various measures have been launched to engage students (Shenoy et al., 2020). In the social, health, political, education, and employment fields, the COVID-19 pandemic has had devastating effects on society. In the field of education, a paradigm shift goes beyond methodological parameters. The fact that the education systems have to transfer from face-to-face to online learning, at a fast pace, leads different educational authorities to make ICT one more methodological resource and necessary means to avoid the collapse of the education system so that the process is not interrupted (Espanio-Diaz et al., 2020).

[...]

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¹ OECD (2020[6]), OECD Telecommunication and Internet Statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/tel_int-data-en (accessed on 18 May 2021).

² OECD (2020[8]), Broadband Portal (database), www.oecd.org/sti/broadband/oecdbroadbandportal.htm (accessed on 19 March 2021).

³ Gosh, Shyamal. (2004) "Indian Telecom Scenario." Yojna. 48, no. 1: 20.

⁴ Indian Economy Survey, 2017, OECD

• Author: Tarun Shyam (Author)
• Publication Year: 2022
• Pages: 199
• Catalog Number: V1298332
• ISBN (PDF): 9783346810960
• Language: English
• Tags: digital, divide, higher, education, system, odisha