An Evaluation of Namibian Devolution Policy. A case of Gobabis Omaheke region in Namibia

Research Paper (postgraduate) , 2022 , 137 Pages , Grade: Distinction

Organisation and administration - Public administration

This discourse unpacks the Namibian Devolution policy modus operandi and modus vivendi which were mooted in 1997 also in the Harambe prosperity plan document, then in the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper and, most recently, in the Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) rubric. While Namibia has decentralized some of the services to sub-national states, the problem is that the Devolution process has not reached the phase of full devolution.

The researcher contends that the participation of local citizens and their proficiency of the local state of affairs contribute to the more accurate documentation and prioritization of human needs. The aim of this rubric was to evaluate the Devolution policy a case of Omaheke region in Namibia.

This survey attempted to achieve three objectives as highlighted below: To evaluate the Devolution policy in case of Gobabis Omaheke region in Namibia. To determine the perceptions of respondents regarding the implementation of Devolution policy. To identify community participation in a decentralised system. To derive, by way of recommendations, possible improvements on the Devolution policy.

This is a case study; hence qualitative research design was adopted as the research method to use in investigating the effectiveness of Devolution on service delivery in the Ministry of Education in the Omaheke Region.

Table of Contents

Abstract vi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction
1.2 Background of the study
1.3 Research problem
1.4 Research Objectives
1.5 Significance of the Study
1.6 Delineation of key Terms
1.7 Outlines of the Study
1.8 Conclusion

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
2.1 Definition of Devolution
2.2 Theories of Devolution
2.2.1 Fiscal federal theory
2.2.2 Public choice theory
2.2.3 Public administration and Public finance theory
2.2.4 Political economy theory
2.3 Forms of Devolution
2.4 Advantages of Devolution
2.4.1 Arguments for Devolution
2.4.2 Arguments against Devolution
2.4.1 Unanswered issues on Devolution research gap
2.4.2 Main argument of this rubric
2.5 Challenges of Devolution
2.6 Debates around the Devolution system
2.7 Implementation of Devolution policies in African countries
2.8 Devolution in Namibia
2.8 Challenges faced during the implementation of the Devolution policy
2.9 Devolution and Service Delivery
2.10 Importance of capacity development in the Devolution system
2.11 Coordination in the Devolution system
2.12 Communities’ participation in a decentralized system
2.13 Conclusion

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.Introduction
3.1. Research Design
3.2. Case study
3.2.1 Conceptual Research Framework
3.3. Research population
3.4. Sampling procedures
3.6. Research Instruments
3.6.1 Interviews
3.6.2 Document analysis
3.7. Data collection procedures
3.8. Data analysis
3.9. Ethical issues

CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.2. Interview findings
4.2.1 Working years of experience of the respondents
4.2.2 The respondents' understanding of the Devolution policy
4.2.3 Perceptions of respondents regarding the implementation of Devolution policy
4.2.4 Educational services before Devolution policy
4.2.5 Provision of training on Devolution system
4.2.6 Coordination of educational activities
4.2.6.1 Coordination of activities at education directorate
4.2.6.2 Coordination of activities between education directorate and Regional Council
4.2.7 Community participation in education activities
4.2.7.1 Direct participation of the Constituency Councillor and CDC members
4.2.8 Reporting system in the delegation phase
4.2.9 Responsibilities of staff members in the delegation phase
4.2.10 The perception of respondents on service delivery
4.2.11 Mechanisms to improve service delivery
4.2.12 The perceptions on the contributing factors impacting the effectiveness of service delivery
4.2.12.1 Perceptions of the respondents on improvement noticed in the delegation phase
4.3 Document analysis
4.4 Conclusion

Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Observations
5.3 Recommendations

Conclusion

References
Appendix 1 Summary of interview Script

List of figures and Tables

Figure 1 Conceptual Framework

Table 1 Population and sample of research participants

Table 2 Years of Experience of research participants

figure 4.1 Understanding of devolution Policy

Figure 4.2 Word Cloud Perception on implementation of Devolution

Table 4.1 Percentage of codes on implementation

Figure 4.3 Educational services before Devolution

Figure 4.4 Provision of training on devolution

Table 4.2 Coordination of Educational services

Figure 4.5 Perception on Service delivery

Figure 4.6 Improving service delivery

Figure 4.7 Documents

Abstract

This discourse decoded by Professor David Mpunwa and Ms Hilda Vahari Hikuama unpacks the Namibian Devolution policy modus operandi and modus vivendi were mooted in 1997 also in the Harambe prosperity plan document, then in the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper and, most recently, in the Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) rubric (IBP, 2013 p5). While Namibia has decentralized some of the services to sub-national states, the problem is that the Devolution process has not reached the phase of full devolution. The researcher contends that the participation of local citizens and their proficiency of the local state of affairs contribute to the more accurate documentation and prioritization of human needs. The aim of this rubric was to evaluate the Devolution policy a case of Omaheke region in Namibia. This survey attempted to achieve three objectives as highlighted below: To evaluate the Devolution policy in case of Gobabis Omaheke region in Namibia. To determine the perceptions of respondents regarding the implementation of Devolution policy. To identify community participation in a decentralised system. To derive, by way of recommendations, possible improvements on the Devolution policy. This is a case study; hence qualitative research design was adopted as the research method to use in investigating the effectiveness of Devolution on service delivery in the Ministry of Education in the Omaheke Region. The findings of the study revealed that eleven out of twenty-six respondents were of the opinion that people at grassroots are participating in the decision-making regarding educational matters. In addition, other issues such as lack of clear guidelines on Devolution, commitment from central government, planning process, overlap in terms of reporting system, lack of HR, time management, lack of coordination of activities, no follow-up trainings, misunderstanding of educational issues, resistance to change, etc. were also highlighted as contributing factors as well as challenges observed since Devolution policy was implemented. Since most participants are not well versed in the Devolution policy, it is necessary to consider training, to bring all members on board, so that they know all innovations are taking place within the organization, since they (staff members) are the custodians of the Devolution policy.

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1. Introduction

The available literature indicates that there is limited research on the impact of Devolution policy on services improvements in Africa. Thus, this research purposefully aims at minimizing this gap in the literature by evaluating the Devolution policy in Namibia. The study uses a case study where the Devolution policy in public education sector will be analyzed/assessed?. Moreover, the research uses primary and secondary data on Devolution from case studies and Namibia. This chapter will provide a background of the survey; address the intended contribution of the thesis, justification of the study, statement of the problem, the methodology that was used to address the main research objective and the limitations of the survey.

1.2 Background of the study

The push to decentralize public service agencies entrenched in Canberra has built enough propulsion for the government to begin negotiating a wayward policy as received wisdom (The Cranberra Times, 2017). Enormous business such as multinational are in regional Australia having boundless plains to share; regions mean business on Devolution (Kotsios, 2017). The level of decision making within governments around the world, differ considerably (Ekpo, 2013). The use of both centralized and decentralized levels of decision making in making selections made at each level concerning the establishment of public services are inspired by the demand for those services rendered by persons living in such dominion (Ekpo, 2007).

Hughes (2003) is the view that failure of the top-down approach to decision-making, led to the emergence of Devolution approach as an attack on the failure of centralization approach in responding to people needs and demands. Poor social services delivery motivated the appearance of Devolution around the globe, the rigidity of the system, unpleasant officials, and corrupt services (Devas, 2005).

According to Ekpo (2013), Namibia Omaheke Devolution involves the existence of sub-national or lower levels of government. Sub-national states have justified Devolution for two fundamental reasons; first, representative democracy seems to work best the closer the government is to its constituents. Ekpo (2007) insists that lower levels of the government be more efficient in the provision of services. For example, local government is better placed at analysing and responding to the desires and demands of the people for public utilities than a distant centralized government. Secondly, people in democratic states have the right to request different types of quantities of public goods and services

The waves of change from centrality to Devolution approaches of decision-making did not leave the African continent behind (Oluwu, 2001 and Ekpo, 2013). For Africa, the Devolution approach came about in the 1980s whereby, African states were urged to undertake Devolution policies so as to cater for their citizens in the remote areas. In the early 1990s, the Devolution movement gained momentum whereby African states adopted radical Devolution as conditionality brought through the Structural Adjustment Policy (SAP) and Political Liberalization Policies (Oluwu, 2001). The Namibian Devolution policy modus operandi and modus vivendi were mooted in 1997 also in the Harambe prosperity plan document, then in the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper and, most recently, in the Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) rubric (IBP, 2013 p5). A particularly thought-provoking initiative has been the design of new institutional arrangements for regional Devolution of bureaucratic, pecuniary and jurisdictional institutions for the purpose of good governance and, in particular, for poverty reduction. Regional Councils Act 1992 other significant fragments of the legislature, crafted in part to accelerate up the Devolution in Hardap, Karas, Khomas, Kunene, Ohangwena, Okavango, Omaheke, Omusati, Oshana, Oshikoto, and Otjozondjupa (IBP, 2013 p 13).

1.3 Research conundrum

A lot has been pronounced about Devolution, but not much produced. “Well-managed Devolution is a smarter strategy in the housing sustainability battle, as it subdues pressure on capital cities and generates the lure of quality careers in the state,” Senator Nash said. “Devolution means more job prospects for our juveniles in the jungle so that they can stay in the region they grew up in (Nash, 2017)’’. She said moving state functions to the regions meant more people in the towns, more patrons in the shops, more students in the schools, and more individuals taking the bull by the horns for the local fire brigade (Nash, 2017). Namibia espoused a Devolution policy in 1997, through which the following functions have so far not much delegated to the regional councils on behalf of central state ministries.

While Namibia has decentralized some of the services to sub-national states, the problem is that the Devolution process has not reached the phase of full devolution,” Saima Shamika, the protagonist for the Prime Minister, elucidated ( New Era, 2016). People careless disregard for consequences the rural areas for urban centers,” she says adding that the urban inundation can be depicted as a crisis because there is nothing at present that fascinates people to rural areas “while services and resources in cities hampered .” The trio advocates that Devolution of services to the countryside is one remedy to the urbanization problem (New Era, 2017).

Minister Haufiku wants health services to be so decentralized that only life-threatening sufferer should be sent to Windhoek for health services. “We want the district and regional hospitals to treat perfectly to the point that only about 15 to 20 percent of individuals looking for health services should be converging to Windhoek,” he enunciated (Kapitako, 2017). The National Farmers’ Federation pronounced ‘’it backs a systematic approach to decentralizing state agencies and sections into regional areas - but to date, that avenue has been “sorely deficient’’ (National Farmers Federation, 2017 ). The policy efforts to empower citizens and inspire maximum participation of local societies in decision making. Augmented participation leading to more accountability, transparency, and receptiveness from local Omaheke corporations is likely to bring about better policies that fit local needs, and which are thus more probable to reduce poverty. It is, therefore, the aim of this rubric to evaluate the Devolution policy a case of Omaheke region in Namibia.

1.4 Research Objectives

This survey attempts to achieve three objectives as highlighted below:

v To evaluate the Devolution policy in case of Gobabis Omaheke region in Namibia

v To determine the perceptions of respondents regarding the implementation of Devolution policy.

v To identify community participation in a decentralised system.

v To derive, by way of recommendations, possible improvements on the Devolution policy.

1.5 Significance of the Study

The study contributes to the body of knowledge in the field of public administration. After the promulgation of the Devolution policy in Namibia, not much rubric has been written on the evaluation of the Devolution policy in the Gobabis Omaheke region. While some have focused on either poverty Devolution in Namibia, no research has specifically focused on the perceptions of respondents regarding the implementation of Devolution policy in Omaheke region. Devolution entails the transfer of political, economic, and administrative authority and functions from central to subnational units of the state. While centralization emphasizes the role of a national government, Devolution pays more attention to the role of local countries. Clearly, this relative emphasis does not signify that the other levels of the state have no role to play. Decentralizing public service provisions supported by fiscal as well as political autonomy granted to sub-national units of nations are often advocated by donor agencies, in particular by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). If this study makes an avid evaluation of the Devolution policy, Omaheke region could provide a model for other developing and African countries in this regard.

1.6 Delineation of key Terms

Devolution in this rubric is delineated as the procedure through which central state transposes multifarious forms of authority and functions to subnational elements of the state for timely adaptation to locally specific conditions (Saito, 2014:p 10).

Evaluation is a systematic assessment incumbent upon a multiplicity of indicators, the process encapsulates attitudinal features and structural aspects which can be pre-ante, ex-ante and post ante evaluation (Bretton, 2012).

Policy can be delineated as that precept of law, which holds that no subject can lawfully do that which is inclined to be pernicious to the public or against the public good (Knoeful, Larrue, & Varone, 2012).

1.7 Outlines of the Study

This survey is ordered as follows: Chapter One covers the background to the topic, research problem, research objectives, and significance of the study. Chapter Two covers the literature on the subject, and Chapter three presents the methodology used. Chapter Four state the findings on the topic of Devolution in detail. Chapter Five makes recommendations and conclusions of the study.

1.8 Conclusion

Devolution encapsulates the transposition of political, economic, and administrative authority and functions from central to subnational units of the state. While centralization underscores the role of a national government, Devolution pays more attention to the role of local nations. Stupendous business such as multinational, are in regional Australia having boundless plains to share; regions mean business on Devolution. The Namibian Devolution policy’s modus operandi and modus vivendi were mooted in 1997 also in the Harambe prosperity plan document, then in the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper and, most recently, in the Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) rubric. Minister Haufiku wants health services to be so decentralized that only life-threatening sufferer should be sent to Windhoek for health services. Augmented participation leading to more accountability, transparency, and receptiveness from local Omaheke corporations is likely to bring about better policies that fit local needs, and which are thus more probable to reduce poverty. It is, therefore, the aim of this rubric to evaluate the Devolution policy a case of Omaheke region in Namibia. The next chapter, which is the literature review makes convergences , divergences, arguments of Devolution from different perspectives of fundis.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

As indicated in chapter one, the purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of the Devolution policy on social service delivery in Gobabis, Omaheke Region Namibia. To get a better understanding of the concept of Devolution, this chapter explores different definitions of Devolution according to various researchers. It also looks at debates around Devolution systems as well as advantages and disadvantages of Devolution. Secondly, the essay focuses on the implementation of the Devolution systems in some African countries as well as the challenges faced during the implementation period. Thirdly, it looks at Devolution and service delivery, the importance of capacity development in a decentralized system, coordination in a decentralized system and communities’ participation in the decentralized system.

2.1 Definition of Devolution

Various researchers and scholars define the concept of Devolution in different ways. Rondinelli (1981, p.81) defines Devolution as the transfer of responsibility for planning, management, and the raising and allocation of resources from the central government and its agencies to field units of government agencies, subordinate units or levels of government, semi-autonomous public authorities or non-governmental private or voluntary organizations. Mawhood (1993, p.42) argues that most individuals and governments favour the concept of Devolution because it necessitates the unlocking of an inert central bureaucracy, curing managerial constipation, giving more direct access for the people to the government and the whole nation to participate in the national development planning process. Govinda (1997, p.18) views Devolution as a fundamental value to be internalized into the system of educational management or as a technocratic solution to the problems that are encountered by the education system.

Reddy (1999, p.23) defines Devolution as the transference of authority, legislative, judicial or administrative from a higher level of government to a lower level. The World Bank (2001) also defines Devolution as the transfer of authority and responsibility of the public functions of the central government to the next and local administrations and the private sector.

Furthermore, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) states that Devolution is the transfer of all or part of the decision-making, responsibilities, and management vested in the central authority towards another regional, provincial or local authority either at districts, municipalities, communities or towards schools(UNESCO, 2005, p.13).

From the preceding delineations, it can be articulated that Devolution varies the way in which power is distributed between central and local governments. It is also essential to note that, this power-distribution does not have to be zero-sum (Saravanamuttu, 2016 page 10). The "zero-sum" and "positive sum" sentiments are the fourth essential abstraction in this survey. In zero-sum circumstances, increased welfares for some can take place only at the outflow of others. Advances by some and losses by others would be equivalent, and consequently, the totality becomes a nonentity. The zero-sum operation is fundamentally a relocation of welfare and hardships across the social order and is a very crude method in which concessions cannot be easily made (Mc Evoy, 2014, p.2). This type of communications is politically ostracized and does not engender a high degree of legitimacy. On the contrary, in a positive-sum circumstance enhancement of benefits to some do not take place at the cost of others. Partaking stakeholders reciprocally gain from such improvements. This kind of contract can appreciate a higher level of political lawfulness, and probabilities for reaching negotiations through negotiations would increase (Mc Evoy, 2014, p.2)

Devolution in this survey can be interpreted as the process through which central states transfers numerous forms of authority and purposes to subnational units of the state for the timely version to locally specific settings. This is a full explanation but is suitable to measure the degree of self-sufficiency and authority fixed to local governments in decision-making, as well as planning, financing, and to execute their activities. This general description relates to both political and organizational spheres (Saito, 2014:p 10)..

2.2 Theories of Devolution

Islam (2015) postulates that it is essential to comprehend Devolution from a theoretical perspective. The four main theories of Devolution are: fiscal federal theory, public choice theory, public administration and public finance and political economy theory.

2.2.1 Fiscal federal theory

Spells out that local level planning system furnishes cost efficacious civil servant because it reckons local preferences more considerately than the central states (Collier, 2013:p 4). It examines the system of distributing tax revenues and public expenses commitments between regional and national governments. Under decentralised fiscal structure the local judicature, gathers taxes from local sources in accordance with these disbursements’ procedures. It also shares tax revenues and public expenditure between richer spheres and abject areas. Nevertheless, there have been hindrances such as it makes macro-economic policies more difficulty (Espasa & Bosch, 2016).The examination of fiscal federalism is employed only to comprehend the architecture of partaking revenues and commitments of public expenditure between central and subnational states.

2.2.2 Public choice theory

Is fundamental in examining the merits and costs of decentralizing the provision of delivery services. Public choice theory proposes that the voter is a client, and the politician is a businessman. Public choice theory propagates the perception that the people are conscious of their needs therefore people involvement in planning and executing will be more proficient and efficacious (Buchanan & Tollison, 2013). The public choice theory asserts that people should make choices about services, taxes and other policies. The challenge is that the public choice theorists is not much vexed with enhancing the capability of state institutions for enhancing effective services which may not be attained by market mechanisms. (Scheinder & Rowley, 2016). Public choice theory can be fundamental to comprehend the nature of goods and services, it unravels the cost and benefits of Devolution. The main restrictions of the public choice theory are that it is myopic and rationalistic. Cogent voters do not vote, and those rational candidates compete for the votes of rational voters, there is no equilibrium outcomes.

2.2.3 Public administration and public finance theory

The essence of public administration and public finance is incumbent upon the fact that it furnishes better services to local residents according to their request. In the genre of public administration there is reinvigorated interest in Devolution (Hildreth & Khan, 2013 p 10). It is named new development administration. Its purpose is to make sure and institutionalise people involvement via the process of Devolution. The public finance concentrated profoundly on recognising the sources of national state revenue, examining the equity and capability of these revenues’ sources, dependence of national state, revenue spawning to facilitate greater resource mobilisation. Public finance theorists have not tackled challenges of improving resource mobilisation, performance of resource mobilisation and performance of state enterprises (Collier, 2013:p 4).

2.2.4 Political economy theory

Political economy school of thought is a huge model which has experienced corporate and pecuniary arrangements that have an effect on the cost efficiency of delivering services (Bretton, 2012). It encapsulates important variables such as politics, financial management, corporate, resource mobilisation and technical assistances (Buchanan & Tollison, 2013). In decision making process political circumstances are reckoned very importantly which affect the execution of decentralised states (Collier, 2013:p 4). Politics have connotations that fundamental relationships among the interest groups are necessary for policy making and execution (Palan, 2013 p 2). Even in non-democratic states decisions are made not only by rational computation but also political bargaining. The most popular political ideology for decentralised governance is that it proposes good governance which is very much closer to people (Bretton, 2012). However, it is not apparent whether political economy theory can recognise local needs where society is incumbent upon a certain hierarchy (Knoeful, et al., 2012). The researcher argues that politics and economics are not in tandem, but sometimes may be shoulder to shoulder, or economics go alone.

The preceding theories should be construed on a macro-level perspective. These theories have not only elucidated features, however, also have not recognised the causal doohickey and process of grassroots level corporations. Perchance they have recognised the viewpoints of Devolution in a macro-level. The researcher argues that Devolution has also culture lens because it tends to develop better with certain cultures. It has been contended that any unit feature of democracy is not adequate to meet the needs of the community. The next section discusses the forms of Devolution

2.3 Forms of Devolution

Even though there are different types of Devolution such as political, administrative, and fiscal, this section concentrates only on administrative Devolution mainly because the Namibian government has opted to use administrative Devolution to redistribute the authority and responsibility to the local government. According to Egbenya (2009; p.15), administrative Devolution deals with the transfer of responsibility for the planning, financing, and management of certain public functions from the central government and its agencies to field units of government or levels of government. There are several major forms of administrative Devolution: deconcentrating, delegation, privatisation, and devolution. Each form has different characteristics as described below.

Dillinger (1993) defines Devolution as the transfer of power to local administrative offices of central government. Govinda (1997; p.16-17) states that delegation commonly refers to the transfer of some of the powers of decision-making to bodies outside the government bureaucracy. This allows the movement of non-governmental organizations in the process. In practice, a delegation of authority involves parastatal entities created by the state itself to handle special areas of public concern. Various authors consider a much broader interpretation of delegation which includes vesting of decision-making powers with members of the bureaucracy within the government hierarchy down the line and away from the centre (Govinda, 1997).

The World Bank (2003; p.4) characterizes Devolution as the weakest form of Devolution that is used most frequently in unitary states to redistribute the decision-making authority, financial and management responsibilities among different levels of the central government to the local government at the regional level. It further states that Devolution merely shifts responsibilities from central government officials to those working in regions, provinces, or districts, or it can create strong field administration or local administrative capacity under the supervision of the central government. The World Bank (2003) also stresses that deconcentrated functions are usually not entrenched in laws and can easily be withdrawn at any time.

According to UNESCO (2005), Devolution means to transfer or delegation of responsibility for managing the activities or services such as education, health, etc. from the national level to a local level of a ministry or central institution. Meanwhile, decision-making and policy formulation remain the key responsibility of the central level.

Winkler (2007) refers to Devolution as the reallocation of decision-making within the education ministry and bureaucracy. Lwendo & Sazita (2011; p.2) view Devolution is more on handling over some administrative authority and responsibility to lower levels within the hierarchy of central government. They further describe it as the transfer of power by shifting of workload to the offices of central government, mostly outside the administrative capital.

The World Bank (2001) defines delegation as the transfer of certain responsibility for decision-making and administration of public functions to the local government. It characterizes it as a more extensive form of Devolution because the central government gives the authority to take over certain functions as semi-autonomous. Furthermore, in this case, the central government does not wholly control the activities of these institutions but the institutions remain accountable to the central government. The World Bank (2003) argues that governments delegate responsibilities when they create public enterprises or corporations, housing authorities, transportation authorities, special service districts, semi-autonomous school districts, regional development corporations, or special project implementation units. It further stresses that delegation is legally recognized (The World Bank, 2003).

By the same token, Lwendo & Sazita (2011; p.3) define delegation as transfer of authority required to perform certain tasks, either to officials within the same organization, or to other institutions. Similar sentiments have been expressed by Kotze (2011; p.26) who defines delegation as the transfer of authority required to perform certain tasks, either to officials within the same organization, or to other institutions. In terms of education, Winkler (2007) considers delegation as the administrative or legal transfer of responsibilities to elected or appointed school bodies such as school councils, school management committees and school governing bodies.

Mukwena & Chirawu (2013) and Lwendo & Sazita (2011) view delegation in the Namibian context as a transfer of functions from a line ministry to enable and empower the Regional Council or local authority to perform the function as an agent on behalf of the line ministry. Lwendo & Sazita (2011; p.81) add that the line ministry is still fully accountable for the performance of decentralized functions. This means that for officials to carry out their functions, they should have a great deal of discretion in decision-making, and they may be exempted from constraints on regular civil service personnel or may be able to charge users directly for services.

Another type of Devolution is devolution which is defined by Sherwood (1969; p.60) as involving the divestment of functions by the central government onto new units of governance outside the control of central authority. It is also characterized as a typical administrative Devolution process that underlies most political Devolution. In the same vein, Conyers (1983) views devolution as the transfer of decision-making power to a subordinate authority operating within its own area of jurisdiction such as a local government institution which is politically responsible to the local population for its decisions and only indirectly subject to the control of the central, state or provincial government. Also, that devolution is a term for political Devolution (Conyers, 1983; p.101).

Govinda (1997; p.17) views devolution as the third type of Devolution which is considered as representing a more comprehensive and genuine approach to decentralizing the management process. In this case, Adamolekun et al., (1990) as cited in Govinda (1997; p.17) argues that specified powers are transferred to sub-national units through an appropriate legal reform process, and generally these units consist of local self-governments constituted through democratic means. In countries which adopt such a model of Devolution, it is considered and perceived as an in-depth reform which is both a fundamental and essential part of national development.

In line with the preceding sentiments, Winkler (2007) states that devolution is the permanent transfer of decision-making responsibilities from the central government to lower levels of government such as provinces, municipalities, or districts. Lwendo & Sazita (2011; p.50) view devolution as a zero-sum power game in which local actors gain at the expense of the central government rather a positive sum of power game in which all players at both local and central government gain over time.

2.3.1 Devolution of Sustainable Organisations

The delineation of sustainable organizations that we're the usage of for our paintings changed into partly stimulated through the important position that stakeholders seem to play in guiding enterprises closer to sustainability (Swanson, 2020). Mc Keon (2020) diagnosed power, legitimacy, and urgency as three key constructs in figuring out stakeholders and assessing their ability effect on an agency. Further, they advise that stakeholder concept “holds the important thing to greater powerful control and to a greater useful, complete concept of the company in society”. Following an exam of masses of various definitions of stakeholder concept, Miles (2015) categorized them into fifteen taxonomies in keeping with the relative and doubtlessly mixed roles performed through folks who can have an impact on organisational operations, folks who can declare rights and different matters from the agency, the ones who've the capacity to collaborate with the agency, and people who're recipients of the impacts of the movements the agency takes (Mc Keon, et al., 2020).

These and different views at the impacts that stakeholders may have on an organisation appear to signify that they play a first-rate position – past the position that shareholders on my own play – in influencing the guidelines that organizations take to end up sustainable or to extrade the character in their sustainable activities. To end up sustainable, organizations comply with pathways of extrade from their previous unsustainable positions or pathways of extrade from one sustainable function to another. In relating to organisational extrade Organizations have styles of methods of doing matters – inclusive of innovation – developing out of the dynamic interaction of individuals, organisational tradition and the task offered through the innovation”. In the next paintings, she diagnosed organizations as complicated adaptive structures in which organisational extrade styles arise in a non-linear style as a consequence of the steady variations that should be made in reaction to the complicated and changing running environmental (Francesca & Giguera, 2013 p75) From this observation, we will posit that the pathways of organisational extrade closer to positions of sustainability are variable and non-predetermined.

The social identification angle illuminates a number of latest techniques and strategies for communicators and policymakers inquisitive about growing effective, mental interventions to sell weather alternate mitigation and adaptation. There are as a minimum three widespread concepts to hold in thoughts while growing social identification-knowledgeable interventions. The first is that fostering private alternate probable includes perceptions of rising in-institution norms (Reynolds et al., 2015).

While researchers are targeted on people and promoting of sustainable behaviour, they aren't targeted on why human beings are cooperating with unsustainable institution practices, nor what encourages them to prevent cooperating with those practices. One possibility is that human beings actually understand that their in-institution norms are getting increasingly sustainable, and that they prevent cooperating to grow to be prototypical in-institution contributors (Ferguson, Bran’s combe, & Reynolds, 2011).

As in-institution opinion leaders, human beings can spotlight and assignment the unsustainable private identities of different institution contributors to elicit attractiveness of rising norms (The Cranberra Times, 2017). Thus, informational interventions can be mainly beneficial for encouraging non-cooperation with unsustainable practices. This is mainly so for the reason that structural violence is based upon a combination of lack of expertise and complicity to preserve guide for environmental harm and injustices (Christie & Noor, 2012). The second precept is that collective alternate probable includes the embedding of in-institution norms into ordinary guidelines and practices (Swanson, 2020)

This approach that it's far critical to apprehend how specific c norms grow to be and stay prototypical inside groups. Indeed, social institution discourse is generally infused with a couple of norms, and opinion leaders are prompted to set up certain ones as maximum consultant of prototypical in-institution behaviour. Such discourse forever highlights and demanding situations the modern-day social identification with competing visions for the in-institution’s destiny behaviours. This additionally approach that it's far critical to assemble guidelines that sell the prototypicality of environmental sustainability.

2.3.2 Strategies for local development

Different authors have pointed out different theories and strategies for local development and devolution. Some of them highlighted here are People-centred development, Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS), the four building blocks of integrated development and community participation.

2.3.2.1 Public participation

Public participation requires a knowledge that there may be a logical and systematic series among the blocks. In a dynamic procedure, this technique of constructing blocks is speculated to be taken into consideration as a course for all alternate agents, managers, consultants, specialists and beneficiaries, the network and the bad, in any respect levels, i.e., cell, region and in particular at District degree.

Full decentralisation of social, economic, or political interface is multifarious and overly relies on a notion of an autonomous persona or rational economic agent that is voluntary and able to participate. Consequently, many distributed applications and services rarely reckon the social coordination functions. When they do, they are crafted as abstract mechanisms such as vote casting, delegation, and aggregation. The decentralisation of network topologies for e-learning and accessibility of cyberspace in emerging states rural areas is inevitable (Bodo & Hoepmann, 2021).

The District Council in Rwanda (DC) is the important thing participant especially chargeable for all primary decisions taken for district improvement as a whole. First of all, and said, the network needs to be aware about its predicaments. In Rwanda an attempt is made on this appreciate as a result of the Rwandan revel in with the successive centralist regimes. In network improvement, it's miles important to connect cost to the know-how and abilities of the population (Mutagoma, 2016).

People must use their IKSs to take part of their personal improvement procedure and those must be considered whilst making decisions. As lengthy as the network does now no longer apprehend the ones problems, the improvement procedure can be impossible. The network is afterwards meant in order to outline its problems, and to design and specify solutions, deliberating the diagnosed neighbourhood possibilities from the grassroots to the district degree for approval (Nash, 2017).

Initiatives will thereafter come from the network themselves to translate those thoughts into included actions. Members of the network need to make contributions to the fulfilment of the motion undertaken through the neighbourhood network establishments so as to make certain ownership. Initiatives on this experience are their coverage makers are irritating to formalize the participative strategies withinside the making plans in any respect the levels.

During the making plans, it is going to be important to stand statistics through thinking about first off, the neighbourhood possibilities. In this way, it is going to be viable to keep away from the sour revel in witnessed for the duration of the Rwanda genocide of 1994, wherein infrastructure and different network assets had been destroyed. The nearby and country wide plans must have as base the plans of Sectors and Districts as permitted through the District Council. Some of those plans are decided on and used as rungs in a ladder while similarly plans are compiled. The plans of the district and concrete regions that need to be permitted through District Council for implementation comprise the plans of groups and large-scale tasks of districts (Bodo & Hoepmann, 2021).

The plans deliver solutions, within the shape of programmes and of tasks, of the problems taken into consideration priority. Districts are requested to make strategic plans for at the least three years, but these plans can be tailored consistent with situations and to how the state of affairs evolves. The plans cognizance on four fields of activity: The development of the socio-economic services; nearby improvement and environmental protection; era of incomes; and measures meant for the vulnerable, increase a difficulty of the not unusual place prejudice amongst individuals who aren't bad, that bad human beings are improvident and “stay hand-to-mouth’. He states that during element that is visible as an ethical defect, in element as an approach for survival. Those who're indigent and desperate, who “do now no longer recognise wherein the subsequent meal is coming from” cannot and do now no longer take the lengthy view of specialists and elites (Swanson, 2020).

2.3.2 2 People Centric

People centric improvement People-targeted improvement thinkers, noted with the aid of using Bosman and Marais in Theron (2005:139), argue that an essential a part of the improvement method is the human beings themselves with their Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS). If all and sundry believes that improvement is ready human beings; then professionals, experts, task managers, consultants, policymakers and nearby improvement planners, ought to paintings collectively intently inside the network (Bunnell & Miller, 2016 p 13). Furthermore, assumes that humanist questioning on improvement perspectives improvement as extra than financial increase and that it consists of transformation of institutions, social-cultural and political structures. (Dutta, 2020)

Moreover, for Brinkerhoff and Coston (1999:348), improvement consists of equity, capacity, empowerment, self-dedication, and sustainability. With this in mind, realistic network improvement making plans desires to recognize the normal life-global of human beings and their social truth if it is supposed to succeed. It is the technique to improvement that appears on the innovative initiative of human beings because the number one improvement resource, and at their cloth and non-secular wellbeing because the stop that the improvement method serves (Kotsios, 2017). They upload that a chief failing of traditional improvement models, each socialist and capitalist, is they emerge as so manufacturing-targeted that the desires of the manufacturing device assume priority over the desires of human beings. Little interest is paid to human ability past requiring beneficiaries to offer volunteer labour in guide of centrally initiated schemes. (Dutta, 2020)

3.2.2.3 Indigenous understanding Systems Indigenous Knowledge System

Within a network, there's a complicated set of understanding and technology that exist and advanced round particular situations of populations and groups. It is that this complicated named Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) is mentioned on this rubric. There is a want to recognize IKS and its position in network lifestyles from an included perspective. At the equal time, it's miles vital to recognize and to discover the capacity contribution of IKS to nearby improvement, and its utilisation for the advantage of its proprietors and the groups (Dutta, 2020).

Sometimes known as nearby understanding, nearby technical understanding, and technical understanding structures, the time period Indigenous Knowledge System (IKS) is, on this thesis, desired due to the fact it's miles greater complete and conveys the connotation of a device of understanding - empirical, theoretical, and philosophical - with its very own methodology (Treurnicht, 1997:93). He provides that Shumacher and different protagonists of the right era motion defined that indigenous understanding have to occupy a critical region within the improvement debate. The Western capital-extensive era is accused of making greater troubles than it solved within the Third World wherein it made the human beings greater depending on its industrialization (Treurnicht, 1997:94). In the popularity in their values, basic, value powerful and want-orientated era, IKSs are primarily based totally on social truth, which derives from social understanding and the nearby culture (Balogogun & Kalusopa, 2020).

In latest years, many global improvement corporations and non-governmental companies have renewed their efforts to offer and sell indigenous understanding orientation in improvement making plans and practice. These efforts emphasize nearby understanding structures and practices as precious assets in international improvement. They supply to the network the possibility to layout improvement tasks that emerge from troubles recognized and assigned precedence through the beneficiaries themselves. They additionally construct upon and support network degree understanding structures and companies (Espasa & Bosch, 2016).

The appropriate route or recognition of an improvement initiative have to be precipitated through the human being’s very own revel in in their truth through incorporating IKS and suitable improvement era to effect undoubtedly on improvement making plans and control on the micro-degree (Bodo & Hoepmann, 2021). The want to reclaim and set up indigenous understanding that has been suppressed is crucial due to the intrinsic fee of the understanding itself in addition to the critical element it is able to play in restoring person and collective dignity and self-assurance in a society. The Rwandan records within the cause of this thesis explains how network improvement now no longer pushed through beneficiaries fails. This appropriate route for improvement as a frame of principle and practices consists of public participation in undertaking making plans, implementation, and evaluation. People come to be greater actors than easy beneficiaries and form their very own improvement (Balogogun & Kalusopa, 2020).

2.4 Advantages of Devolution

Cheema & Rondinelli (1983; p.14-16) summarize the benefits of Devolution as follows: Devolution can become an effective way of overcoming the serious limitations of centrally controlled national planning. This can be done by delegating some control and authority in national development planning and government to officials who are directly concerned with the field or local situation and are as such closest to the development problems. Devolution to regional and local levels will, therefore, permit officials to design and plan development which would be appropriate to the specific needs of the various regions and heterogeneous groups.

Decentralizing the functions of central government and linking central to local and regional levels will provide an opportunity to increase knowledge and grasp of officials concerning local problems and needs.

Devolution can give rise to a greater representation of the diversity of political, religious, ethnic, and tribal groups in development decision-making which, in turn, can promote the principles of equality in the allocation and utilization of government resources. Devolution can have a stimulating effect on the development of more effective administrative resources among local government and private institutions. This means that these institutions will be able to take over functions which are often poorly performed by the central government. Moreover, this may give local officials the opportunity to develop their own managerial and technical skills.

Devolution can also provide valuable structures whereby the activities of a variety of central government ministries can more effectively link up and reach an accommodation with one another, as well as with the activities of local officials and non-governmental organizations in the various regions.

A decentralized structure is also needed to institutionalize mass participation. Such a structure would be capable of facilitating the exchange of information and of channeling local needs and political demands from the local communities to the national government. Devolution can give rise to a more flexible, innovative and creative administrative system. Local administrative units can accordingly have more freedom to test innovative action and experiment with it in selected areas, without jeopardizing national objectives.

It is accepted that Devolution can also promote political stability and national unity, in that groups in different areas of a single national state are afforded the opportunity to participate more directly in development decision-making.

You have presented stand-alone sentences above as advantages of Devolution. You need to explain them further so that the message that you want to present is presented clearly. Otherwise, they are disjointed and stand-alone sentences that do not help one to appreciate the advantages of Devolution. Try to link the sentences together even though they belong to different paragraphs.

2.4.1 Arguments for Devolution

Protagonists contend that decentralizing events can bring much enhancement, politically as well as ennobling (Tripathi & PNP, 2012 p 130). The ultimate validation of decentralists is pecuniary efficiency. By bringing services "contiguous to people," locally, specific challenges are more easily approved and tailor-made remedies can be executed (Basu, 2013 p 212). Public services rendered by the local state are also distributed more promptly than by central state since decision making at local level condenses time-consuming bureaucratic methods (Basu, 2013 p 212). Second, with decentralized states, persons have increased chances on a grassroots level to participate more enthusiastically in the decision-making processes of the country.

Effective participation permits the exercise of people's rights to outline decisions which affect their lives (Bretton, 2012). Consequently, people can better comprehend and validate a profound commitment to development rules and projects (Visser, 2014 p 42). Both the counseling processes and results of joint activities are vested to the poor in developing nations. Third, orderly progression increases the contentment of service users, which in turn surges locally produced revenues. People who value the services they receive become more enthusiastic to disburse for those services (Krishna, 2013). The increased inclination for cost sharing subsidizes to sustainable local service needs. Fourth, local participation also assists to improve accountability of community. With more transparency, decentralized states can put up competing interests more constructively than centralized government and are more appropriate for the multi-ethnic and multi-religious community in developing nations, predominantly in Africa. Devolution measures can better enable social harmony across the country (Growthorpe, 2013).

2.4.2 Arguments against Devolution

Criticism against Devolution, expressly in emerging nations situations, is not infrequent. Enemies of Devolution offer contradistinction to almost all the arguments furnished by decentralists. The following points are exposed in hostility to the equivalent perceptions shown by the decentralists. The annotator say, first of all, that increased efficiency and success of public resources will not be grasped since capital, human and even social resources accessible at local levels in low-income nations are very inadequate (Ryder & Bucek, 2015 p 9). Custom-made resolutions in deprived localities remain as a mere shibboleth. These uncommon resources are instead more effectually exploited when they are focused at the centre (Sowa, 2015 p 163).

The enhancement of public services can be more sufficiently gotten by combining dimensions of the central state. Second, local power edifices are likely to effect the way in which partaking of the poor is systematized (J.W & Newton, 2014 p 125). Newly created national independence can be abused by indigenous crème de la crème seeking personal advantage at the cost of the general populace (Tomaney, et al., 2013 p 168). Therefore, counseling processes are not automatically sanctioning to the poor. Third, without momentous enhancement of civil services, the community does not wish to pay more taxes for what it receives (Coster & Schmidtchen, 2013 p 175). The accentuated revenue generation in the vicinity remains an optimism more than a fact. Fourth, Devolution assessment does not mitigate separatist inclination and may portend local integration by reemphasizing social compartments along, among other things, ethnic and religious lines (OECD, 2013). Even a very small neighbourhood may not be wholly standardized in ethnic and religious circumstances. Because bringing supremacy closer to the people underscores identity issues in local politics, Devolution, paradoxical may strengthen social divisions (Francesca & Giguera, 2013 p75).

2.4.1 Unanswered issues on Devolution research gap

What becomes conspicuous in the belles-lettres is that both advocates and critics use the same rationale very contrarily. The current hullabaloos over Devolution policies and activities recommend that both the supporters and the foes of Devolution have a certain validity in their wiles at the same time that their disparagements do not recommend any internal fraud in the opponents' justification. Moreover, perlustration of the debate designates that even the critics tend to reckon that the notions behind Devolution policies are precise (Basu, 2013 p 212).

Nevertheless, they insist that most of the local states in the developing universe do not possess the necessary ability to execute such policies (Espasa & Bosch, 2016). The critics of decentralists are not "centralists." Paradoxically, even the connoisseur appears to assume that once suitable capacity is engendered, Devolution would prevail (Hildreth & Khan, 2013 p 10). In short, veracities suffocate ideals. The Devolution challenge, then, principally becomes an empirical question. It is contended that Devolution is propitious for reducing poverty (Collier, 2013:p 4). However, because Namibia is underprivileged, they cannot efficaciously execute well-intended Devolution measures. The key question, then, is whether evaluation policy measures in Gobabis region present hope for poor regions? Under what settings do Devolution evaluators enjoy a greater chance of success rather than failure? The attested challenge in the debates is a wide gap, both among advocates and protagonist of Devolution, between assumed outcomes and pragmatic evidence. There is a plethora of reasons for this gap. First, the available belles-lettres on Devolution experiences in Namibia tends to focus on formal and legal aspects (Ministry of Regional and Local government , 2012). Much attention has been paid to the realignment of offices, encapsulating the paradigm shift of duties and accountabilities from one branch of the government to another (Kotsios, 2017). Nevertheless, it has not yet been fully explored as to how this kind of re-establishment is professed by appropriate stakeholders, expressly the grassroots poor, and whether the organizational transformations have upgraded relationships between service providers and beneficiaries (National Farmers Federation, 2017 ). To evaluate the Devolution policy in Gobabis region and solicit the perceptions of respondents regarding the execution of Devolution becomes inevitable. To determine community participation in a decentralized system. Second, most of the belles-lettres tends to assess "Devolution" as a gargantuan policy, although its goals are usually numerous: public management restructuring, economic efficiency, political lawfulness, and democratization, and eventually, poverty reduction (Tomaney, et al., 2013 p 168). It is not very convenient to contend whether "Devolution" as a totality in Gobabis is "successful" or not. There usually is a salmagundi of some elements of eminence and sinking ship. Moreover, the effort to reach these various goals at the same time can be antipodal. It has to be reported, therefore, that Devolution processes often convey zealous and quixotic expectations to transform societies in Namibia.

2.4.2 Main argument of this rubric

The researcher contends that the participation of local citizens and their proficiency of the local state of affairs contribute to the more accurate documentation and prioritization of human needs. This results in a more perspicacious allocation of available funds for the attainment of poverty reduction objectives (OECD, 2013). Decentralized local and district states are the established arrangement which furnishes these opportunities for people, encapsulating the poor and assailable (Palan, 2013 p 2). Planning approaches embracing local people and based on knowledge of local settings create a facultative environment for local societies to participate in development decisions and tasks (Bretton, 2012). In this context, community participation on Devolution is more likely to reduce poverty in Gobabis area. The State of Namibia has and still, designed various programs and strategies setting poverty reduction as the most important objective through Harambe prosperity plan.

The researcher argues that Devolution by itself should not be viewed normatively as a good policy. Norms and attitudes are inspired by the way in which stakeholder’s correlate with each other to negotiate their welfares and drawbacks. Social ambulation affects norms, just as normative values inspire social ambulation (Koschut, 2016). Empirical investigation discloses a systematic picture of the Devolution measures in Gobabis Omaheke. At the countrywide level, a clear policy framework is now in place. The central state is dedicated to providing funds for decentralized services through inter-government fiscal transmissions. At local levels, the local council, formed by elected spokesperson, is the main symbiosis between authorities and grassroots people. Administrators are held answerable to the councilors who serve as political spokesperson. At the primordial level, people participate in local decision-making procedures, and small-scale development goings-on is increasingly executed (Saravanamuttu, 2016 page 10). The results usually fulfil the needs of the poor and the disadvantaged. NGOs repeatedly advocate this process by helping society leaders to mobilize villagers, as well as making accessible some financial assistance (Hoffman, 2014 p 4)

On the other hand, Gobabis Omaheke positively faces remaining challenges. Even if participation at the local levels is cumulative and can enable more collaboration for collective action, it can also exasperate such happenings if people's mounting demands are not met. Increased participation can attract more synchronization as well as more struggle within the Gobabis Omaheke multi-ethnic society. Clearly, a strategic alliance is still fragile and can be solidified by affiliated enhancements in incentives, information, and conflict-resolution machinery. Devolution procedures are many audacious attempts to transmute a wide range of social exchanges among diverse stakeholders than what is often presumed in the Literature, particularly those adopted by donor agencies. Devolution processes are clearly very multifaceted and are not a little social engineering based on a prototype which can be employed anywhere. Political support is crucial for successful Devolution. Nevertheless, the way in which such support is provided is perilous to shaping power relationships between various levels of the government. In the Gobabis Omaheke n experience, the political commitment by the state has both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. The very fact that system is bonded with the SWAPO politics is valuable because the SWAPO is committed politically to pursuing Devolution.

2.5 Challenges of Devolution

Rondinelli et al. (1983), Tordoff (2015; p.555), Acheampong (2014) stress that central governments in post-colonial African countries have tended to withhold their support for Devolution. The result is that local administrative capacity (which could have been reinforced by a clearly defined Devolution policy) has remained low and has indirectly actually contributed to centralization. Political culture is one of the disadvantages pointed out that have helped to authoritarian forms of government, which in turn have an inhibiting effect on efforts at further Devolution. Rondinelli et al. (1983; p.57, 62) note that the attitudes and behavioural patterns of local officials, leaders and populations at large may be decisive for the success of Devolution, although it is hard to provide for these factors in organizational design. Samoff (1990; p.523-524) emphasizes that when Devolution is not understood and does not correspond with the interests of those who have to apply it, the Devolution system is not executed effectively.

Devolution per se will not improve the productivity or usefulness of service delivery, enhance governance or 100% local participation, or ensure better natural resource management. It does not per se eradicate poverty but will mitigate the effects of poverty in the region (IIED , 2014 p 4). In Uganda Devolution had limited and fairly insignificant effect on poverty (Hartmann & Crawford, 2013 p 234). Empiricism in the Philippines and South-east Asia demonstrate that many local states do not have adequate resources to re-join to the challenges of Devolution (Bunnell & Miller, 2016 p 13) . The other challenge of Devolution is that local States dimensions to meet their citizens' needs and still retain their support (Hartmann & Crawford, 2013).

2.6 Debates around the Devolution system

Govinda (1997; p.17) argues that Devolution is shown as a “choice of society” and therefore it becomes an ideological choice, an equation in which participatory democracy is directly about Devolution. Samoff (1990; pp.523-524) argues that Devolution will succeed where it reinforces existing power relationships and where its objectives correspond with these power structures.

The World Bank (2005; p.4) argues that Devolution introduces one more relationship of accountability between the central and local policymaker. It further states that Devolution brings changes in rules and practices between central and local policymakers which effect service delivery only through their effect on the accountability relationship between local policy-makers and providers. Conyers (1983; p.599) also argues that Devolution that concentrates on development is regarded as an approach in which Devolution should be seen as a process. Devolution should be regarded as an instrumental tool bringing other forms of changes such as social, economic, and political.

Samoff (1990; p.52) stresses that “the discussion of Devolution is a microcosm of the development discourse”. Furthermore, some researchers emphasize that when e-governments follow Devolution, it means that they opt for an approach which places modernization and bureaucratic intervention for development at the forefront. Samoff (1990) also argues that some researchers emphasize that the state embrace devolution, meaning that they follow an approach which places empowerment of the people as a requirement for development.

According to Govinda (1997; p.21), when a country adopts Devolution approach many alternatives emerge with their implications and the power for decision-making is shared among the different actors. Govinda further stresses that power could be vested in the hands of democratically elected representatives, or it may be with members of the civil service. Govinda also argues that the bureaucracy could again consist of central government representatives or the members of the local administration. Even where local self-government functions, educational management decisions may be kept outside their purview as is the case in some states of India.

Faustor (2014) argues that Devolution of services can be classified into broad categories depending on ideology, political arguments and administrative arguments to mention but a few. For ideology, Devolution of services is considered as an important part of the overhaul of government and its relations with the civil society, to (or “intending to”) greater democratization. Regarding political arguments, Devolution changes the pattern and style of governance, with the attendant sharing and transfer of responsibilities and authority between the various tiers of government and administrations and opening broader channels for participation by society. For the administrative arguments, Devolution refers to streamline organization of the system, making it less bureaucratic and more (Faustor, 2014).

In the same vein, Govinda (1997; p.30) also refers to the basic philosophy and rationale that guided Devolution of management in Sri Lanka as captured from the Bandarawela Conference. It took place in 1961 as: “Devolution is one of the important means of securing efficiency and speed in handling the day-to-day work of administration. Devolution connotes delegation of authority to regional offices and the lessening of the concentration of power at the Head office”.

Another debate regarding Devolution was that decentralizing responsibility for education to a lower-level government which allows people at grassroots to hold one set of officials strictly accountable for education and the upper tier strictly responsible for defense (The World Bank, 2005; p.14).

The study conducted on identifying the impact of Devolution on the quality-of-service delivery revealed that Devolution does not need or always have a positive influence on the quality of services. It further points out that to the extent Devolution reduces the power of central service sectors; centrally run information systems that feed service delivery policy decision may collapse (Winkler, 2007).

Durand-Prinborgne (2002; p.48) also illustrates that Devolution of services is more important for education because it directly concerns the problems on the social services delivery system. Problems such as whether the regions have in spatial terms a zone of jurisdiction such as to set up exists whereby authorities have a responsibility within the administrative district but not outside of it.

Similarly, Tötemeyer (2011; p.1) stresses in his presentation during the National Education Conference that, decentralized education and knowledge dissemination can only be successful if the Ministry of Education has at its disposal adequately trained professional and knowledgeable personnel. Fully qualified in planning and acquainted with the newest developments in the educational sector at international level. An adequate infrastructure, access to information and proper curriculum planning are further preconditions for successful Devolution of education.

He further argues that in Namibia, decentralized education can only be successful when it is related to the needs, desires, and expectations of the community. Trust and confidence building which is based on honesty and ethics has to be considered as a successful result of the decentralized education. He also emphasized the issue of increased self-esteem and self-assurance as well as it must contribute to dignity (Tötemeyer, 2011).

The case studies conducted in South Africa revealed that Devolution is not a solution for enhancing participation, affecting equity, and /or improving the the quality of social services. The extent to which policies of service Devolution can and do achieve such as goals is as much of a matter of implementation as it is a question of how the policies are constructed and what assumptions are inscribed in their articulation. Also, the South African case studies strongly illustrate that policies of services Devolution cannot easily affect equity societies with a high degree of social inequity (Sayed, 2013; p.28).

Similarly, the World Bank (2005; p.12) argues that the hope of Devolution to locally elected governments is that by narrowing the jurisdiction served by a government and the scope of public activities for which it is responsible citizens will find it easier to hold government accountable. Furthermore, the World Bank (2005; p.12) adds that,

Devolution improves outcomes to the extent that physical proximity increases people information, participation, and monitoring of performance and to the extent of narrowing the scope of responsibilities of each tier of government decision-makers reduce their ability to shirk on some responsibilities by performing better on others.

In the same context, Johnson (2001; pp.13-15) as cited in Lwendo & Sazita (2011) states that the decentralized component involves a change from the centralized bottom-up system. The new regime sees planning as a political-technical dialogue and process participation of the community, inter-sectoral and interdisciplinary collaboration are an integral part of the process, and it involves continuous monitoring and evaluation of implementation to provide effective feedback.

Manhood (1993; p.42) points out that most individuals and governments favour the concept of Devolution because it implies the unlocking of an inert central bureaucracy, curing managerial constipation giving more direct access for the people to the state and the whole nation to participate in the national planning process. For a government to provide services to the people effectively, it needs to be closer to its people. This will enable direct contact with the recipients and eventually ensure equal service access to the inhabitants of the country.

The study conducted in India revealed that Devolution need not always result in the empowerment of the people and reduction in state control. According to Webster (1992; p.129-130),

Far from it, the extension of the state outward and downwards can just as well serve the objective of consolidating the power of the central state as it can serve the objective of devolving power away from the central. It can extend the state’s control over the people just as it can aid the people’s control over the state and activities. Devolution is very much a double-edged sword.

Many scholars questioned the basic genuineness of the move to a Devolution system as a means of empowering sub-national and local communities. They argue that the possibility of giving power to regional and local political units may be regarded as a political strategy to calm down regional forces (Govinda, 1997; p.25). Meanwhile, Bray (2015) argues that many developing countries encumber with extreme resource scarcity, look to Devolution and increase community participation to maintain their legitimacy. In other words, regions are more powerful as the populations are influential in electing a government or instigating an uprising against it. We find out that in these cases, governments decentralize offices, but functions are still sourced from central governments.

Kotze (2011; p.26) adds to the above points that in the past, governments in the developing countries used to display an infamously hesitant attitude towards Devolution. Kotze further states that in many cases, developing countries were suspicious of the dispersal of political power through devolution. Kotze argues further that in case powers were transferred to local authorities that did not have the capacity to implement the decisions they were empowered to take. The ability of field administration was expanded without transferring the necessary financial authority states Kotze. As a result, blame of Devolution for failures that may be caused, such as corruption and misuse of power would then be pinned back on the central government.

According to Larsen (2003), for regional planning to function, a transfer of political, administrative, legislative, and not least authority from the central to regional level is necessary. In most of Namibia, the government preferred devolution as a Devolution model, though admitting that Devolution is a long-term process starting with the delegation and then devolution (Larsen, 2002; MRLGH, 1997).

The Gobabis Public education is still dependent on the central government for various services provision and funding (Drake, 2002). This affects the development of education sector in the Omaheke region naturally because all the funds corrected by the region are sent to Windhoek for re-allocations

In the same context, Lwendo & Sazita (2011; p.5) point out that corruption benefits those in higher positions at the national level by favouring their own regions while neglecting other regions or minority tribes in government, which will further neglect development in rural areas. Lwendo & Sazita further argue that as a result of poor planning other regions benefit from the budget allocations while others lag behind. Similarly, Walterston (1992; p.33) argues that overconcentration of decision-making at the top of the hierarchical structure of governance not benefiting the people at the grass root level. Meanwhile, Winkler (2007; p.2-3), argues that Devolution can also lead to confusion over service management, causing conflicting decisions or failure to carry out functions with adverse effects on quality and efficiency.

In support of the arguments mentioned above, The World Bank (2005; p.22-23) also argues that Devolution can be resisted by those who have benefited from the previously centralized system if it threatens their access to such benefits. For instance, politicians and bureaucrats at upper tiers of government may have to earn rights from the system that gave them control over the allocation of resources.

Marclure (1993) emphasizes on the three arguments that central governments are increasingly unable to direct and administer all aspects of mass social services. Therefore, Devolution of planning and programming will result in improved service delivery by enabling local authorities to perform tasks for which they are better equipped. Marclure (year) furthermore states that since mass social service delivery has placed an excessive strain on state resources, Devolution will improve the economies of scale. Also this will lead to more appropriate responses to the particular needs and situations of different regions and groups.

[...]

• College: University of Botswana
• Course: Masters in Business Studies
• Grade: Distinction
• Author: David Rewayi Mpunwa (Author)
• Publication Year: 2022
• Pages: 137
• Catalog Number: V1264275
• ISBN (PDF): 9783346702814
• ISBN (Book): 9783346702821
• Language: English
• Tags: evaluation, namibian, devolution, policy, gobabis, omaheke, namibia