The divergences between maoism and classical marxist thought

Table of Content

Introduction

1. Nationalism, Revolution(s) and Civil War
1.1. The Confucian Background
1.2. Historical Background

2. Ideology and Practice- the Distinct Features of Maoism
2.1. The People’s War
2.2. Ideology and the Theory of Contradictions

3. Permanent Revolution and Mass Campaigns

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

From all great streams of Marxist thought, Maoism is the only one that survived the end of the Cold War. The reason for this cannot be seen in the continuing existence of the People’s Republic of China that has gradually distanced itself from its founder and furthermore more or less openly embraces capitalism. Despite the fact that the implementation of key aspects of Maoist ideology has resulted rather in disaster than in a better society wherever it was attempted, Maoism continuous to play a prominent role in revolutionary movements in the underdeveloped world. The last successful People’s War fought according to Maoist principles took place in Nepal. In neighbouring India, the majority of the various groups constituting the Naxalite movement openly follow Maoist ideology.

What is it that continues to make Maoism attractive irrespective of historic failures in China and Cambodia? I shall argue in this paper that Maoism is an ideology in its own right- its specific strength and attractiveness stems from the fact that it provides an actual guideline for a revolution that can be followed almost step by step. That distinguishes it from classical Marxism that has so far failed the test of history. Nonetheless, Marxism does provide the theoretical framework for Mao, but only in so far as theory mattered for the Chinese Revolution. Mao realised the need for a theoretical narrative and since that narrative was provided by Marx, Maoism can be considered a Marxist school of thought. However, the differences are more substantial than Mao was ready or able to admit.

1. Nationalism, Revolution(s) and Civil War

1.1. The Confucian Background

The philosophy of “Master Kung” had gained predominance among other schools of thought in China such as Taoism or Legalism during the time of the Han Dynasty in the 2nd century B.C.; almost 300 years after the Master had died. According to Hsiung, “the Han rulers accepted Confucianism because it taught the people to accept authority; [while] the Confucian scholars supported imperial power because their wisdom and knowledge, as tested in the nascent imperial examination system, earned them a privileged status in the governmental process”.^[1] The relationship between dynastic rulers and Confucian scholars that was characterised by both mutual benefit and dependency would dominate Chinese society for nearly 2000 years. Originally it was believed that the “high culture and personal virtue of the Confucian ‘literocrats’ would lead to a benign and enlightened form of government, maybe somewhat similar to the Platoan idea of philosopher kings. However, in reality, “the Confucian emphasis upon harmony and upon individual submissiveness within an established hierarchy of human relationships hardened increasingly into a justification for the dynastic status quo” and led to a general acceptance of authority.^[2]

Confucianism is essentially normative; it equipped Chinese society with a sophisticated code of conduct that laid its emphasis on restraint and deference in order to prevent antisocial behaviour in contrast to the Western belief in the punitive and remedial functions of the law. The morality and values of Confucianism were suited to provide stability to an agrarian society but began to disintegrate rapidly when the forces of Modernity arrived. The massive changes that were to occur in Chinese society could neither be explained nor be contained by a system based on unquestioned consensus regarding social goals and values and the “observance of proper procedures, ceremonies, and social decorum”.^[3]

1.2. Historical Background

The disintegration of Imperial China that eventually led to the proclamation of a Republic in 1911 had been a decade- long process characterised by both external and internal developments. The last dynasty of the Qings had actually been able to consolidate and extent its power before it was massively confronted with the forces of Modernity. The first Opium War with the British Empire from 1839- 1842 not only resulted in defeat and the cession of Hongkong under the Treaty of Nanjing, it also marked the beginning of the end of the old order.^[4]

The decades that followed witnessed a series of military defeats to Western powers and Japan resulting in more “unequal treaties” as well as an increasing number of internal insurgencies such as the Taiping or Nien rebellions. The pressure that had been built up in the course of these developments erupted in the Boxer rebellion of 1900. While the objective of this rebellion was to push back foreign influence it soon turned into an outright attack on anything and anybody deemed to be of foreign origin. In an attempt to capitalise on the opportunity the Qing rulers openly supported the rebellion and declared war on the Western powers. However, seven Western nations and Japan responded by forming an alliance that subsequently put down the rebellion with brutal force. In this light, the Boxer rebellion can be seen as the last significant resistance of traditional China to Modernity.^[5]

After the Boxer rebellion had been quashed and the Qing dynasty been forced to accept yet another humiliating “peace” treaty the days of the dynasty were numbered. What followed was an almost five decade long struggle that came to be known as the Chinese Revolution. The Chinese Revolution unfolded itself in three stages: 1) the republican revolution that witnessed the proclamation of a Republic in 1911 and ended with the founding of the Chinese Communist Party in 1921; 2) the nationalist revolution in the 1920s and 1930s under the leadership of the Kuomintang; and finally 3) the Communist revolution that resulted in the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949 and lasted at least until the Cultural Revolution of 1966-69, Mao’s death in 1976 or arguably even the present.^[6]

As these stages were interlinked, significant overlapping can be identified: elements of the former stage shaped and produced the latter. This is especially obvious in the relationship of the nationalist Kuomintang and the Communist Party. Although the Kuomintang had been founded by Sun Yat- Sen in 1912 it only became a powerful movement after World War I. The chaos of the republican era had resulted in the fragmentation of China under a number of Warlords. Furthermore, the Treaty of Versailles awarded German territories in the Shandong province to Japan instead of handing it back to China. Chinese nationalism finally emerged forcefully during the May 4th movement of 1919 and the Kuomintang succeeded in taking the nationalist lead shortly afterwards. The May 4th movement also greatly contributed to the spread of Marxist ideology in China, a development that had been initiated by the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. Kuomintang leader Sun Yat- Sen negotiated an agreement to form an alliance with the newly- found Communist Party to unite China and repel foreign influence and dominance in return for Soviet support and advise. In doing so he greatly enhanced the capacities of the nationalist movement but also alienated more conservative elements within the Kuomintang.^[7]

The disagreements within the Kuomintang about their alliance with the Communists became critical after the death of Sun Yat- Sen in 1925. The internal power struggle was won by Chiang Kai- Shek who had been a leader of the Kuomintang’s military campaign. In 1926 he launched a successful offensive to liberate northern territories from Warlords. Probably encouraged by these victories and supported by the growing conservative faction within the Kuomintang, Chiang Kai- Shek abruptly put an end to the alliance by attacking and assaulting Communist troops and positions. The split in the nationalist movement resulted in a 22- year long Civil War that only ended with the Kuomintang’s retreat to Taiwan.

The remnants of the surprised Communist forces managed to escape to Jiangxi province, a remote area in south- western China, where they consolidated and founded the Chinese Soviet Republic under the leadership of Mao Zedong and Zhu De in 1931.^[8]

The existence of a Soviet Republic in China was a fact that Chiang Kai- Shek did neither want to accept nor tolerate. Consequently, he launched a series of military campaigns against the Chinese Soviet Republic with the clear goal to once and for all terminate the Communist threat in China. The fifth of these campaigns was successful in so far as the Communists had to abandon their positions and the Soviet Republic ceased to exist. However, led by Mao the bulk of the Communist forces managed to escape and embarked on what came to be known as the Long March. Although the Long March was not survived by the majority of those participating, it nevertheless became a legendary and mystified event that furthermore saw Mao emerge as the leader of the Chinese Communists.^[9]

Parallel to the Civil War the Japanese invaded the Manchuria province where they met little resistance. However, in 1937, another Japanese aggression aimed at the northern Chinese heartland forced the Chinese nationalists and communists to combine their forces a second time. Nonetheless, the common fight against the Japanese could only halt the fight for China’s future temporarily, and the end game was to take place between 1945 and 1949.

2. Ideology and Practice- the Distinct Features of Maoism

The evolution of Maoist thought corresponds with the progress of the Chinese Revolution. It is certainly no coincidence that Marxism had only been become popular in China after the successful Bolshevik revolution. Lenin had proved that original Marxism could be adjusted to the conditions of not fully industrialised countries by expanding it with his theory of imperialism. However, while Lenin never questioned the main tenets of Marx such as dialectical materialism or the leading role of the proletariat, Mao’s modifications were far more substantial. For Mao, Marxism provided the theoretical framework, i.e. a powerful justification for a revolution, but in the Chinese conditions it was completely useless as a practical guideline. Marxism is “a theory derived essentially from analysis of European history but proclaiming universal applicability”.^[10] This contradiction is the root cause of the distinct features of Maoism. Mao was less concerned with universal theories; he wanted to successfully carry out a revolution in the specific Chinese circumstances. Maoism is therefore not a theory but an ideology solely aimed at practical application and consequently developed and gained strength as the revolution progressed. The differences between Marxism and Maoism can therefore be identified in the practical aspects of a revolutionary concept. These aspects can be approached with three questions: 1) When will the revolution occur?, 2) Where will it occur? and 3) Who will lead it?^[11] The difference between theory and practice becomes even more obvious in a fourth question: What will happen once the revolution succeeded?

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^[1] Hsiung 1970, 18

^[2] Hsiung 1970, 19

^[3] Hsiung 1970, 20

^[4] Schrecker 2004, 121

^[5] Purcell 1963, 77-78

^[6] Lazzerini 1999, 10

^[7] Lazzerini 1999, 14

^[8] Schrecker 2004, 203

^[9] Schrecker 2004, 205

^[10] Lazzerini 1999, 42

^[11] ibid