Social networks allow us to keep in touch with people all over the world. In addition to personal messages, many users also post pictures and videos from their everyday lives. For many people, however, this has not only positive effects.
In fact, social media can also have a negative impact on our sense of well-being. In particular, the constant comparison with the postings of other users can unsettle not only young people. Nick Feldmann looks at the connection between social comparison processes on Instagram and the user's self-esteem.
Due to the high user numbers of social media, a particularly large number of people are affected by these mechanisms. Self-perception also has a major influence on success in life. Feldmann therefore examines the extent to which conscious and unconscious comparison with other people in social networks affects self-worth.
Table of contents
Abstract IV
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical part: Background and state of research
2.1 Research Field Social Psychology
2.2 The Self
2.3 The social network Instagram
2.4 Derivation of the research question and hypotheses
3 Methodology
3.1 Survey method
3.2 Description of the questionnaire
3.3 Description of the sample
3.4 Evaluation method
4 Results
4.1 Hypothesis testing and empirical findings
4.2 Further findings
5 Discussion
5.1 Criticism
6 Conclusion and outlook
Bibliography
Annex
Annex A: questionnaire
Annex B: Result tables
Abstract
Recent research findings show that usage of social networks can negatively affect wellbeing and trigger insecurity. Based on that assumption, in this study the relationship between social comparison processes while using Instagram and users' self-esteem was investigated. For that purpose, a quantitative questionnaire was developed and 134 participants between the age of 16 and 64 were assessed. Subsequent data analysis provided evidence for a significant negative relationship between users' tendency to self-compare via Instagram and measures of users' state self-esteem. There were no relevant gender effects found. The results partly consolidate the current state of research, while also delivering unexpected outcomes that in turn raise new questions. This study therefore presents a basis that can incite future research. Considering the growing number of social network users, the importance of continued research becomes apparent. As self-esteem is a decisive factor for success in various life domains, it is critical to determine how it is affected by conscious and unconscious social comparisons via social networks.
1 Introduction
Humans are not loners by nature. The mere fact that a newborn is dependent on external help for years underlines this statement. As Vester (2009) notes, man is a consistently social being who strives to fulfill his basic psychological need for belonging. With the aim of pursuing this desire, individuals maintain countless and different relationships with their fellow human beings. The active engagement with the environment carries with it the feeling of being able to classify one's own being within society. The main points of reference on which people rely in this process of exchange are behaviours, attitudes and values (Zimbardo & Gerrig, 2004). Social integration requires the acquisition of relevant self-knowledge. In this respect, social comparison processes take place both consciously and unconsciously (Festinger, 1954). Especially in the course of digitization, the possibilities for social comparison have multiplied considerably. Social networks such as Facebook or Instagram offer a platform for the digital presentation of the self (Vogel, Rose, Roberts and Eckles, 2014). The fact that this is actually being used is reflected in the increasing number of users. In 2017, 45 million people in Germany alone have already used one of the two networks (or both) (Horizont, 2018). Not only has the own input required for comparison shifted to digital worlds, but the amount and variety of information to be included has also increased.
Gorden Allport (1954), who is considered a co-founder of humanistic psychology, postulates through his studies that human thinking, behavior and emotions, among other things, affect fellow human beings as well as are subject to their influence. Based on this, the question arises as to what effects social comparison processes within social networks can have on the user.
The relevance of this study is based on the topicality and the enormous reach of digital platforms and thus the high number of those affected by these possible effects.
The aim of this research is to investigate to what extent the topic presented here is related to the self-esteem of humans. Since Instagram in particular has recorded an enormous increase in users in recent years (Horizont, 2018), the focus of the work is on this platform.
The following question was developed:
Is there a connection between social comparison processes on Instagram and the self-esteem of the user?
The following chapters initially form a theoretical basis of understanding and thus fulfil the purpose of being able to integrate the research results presented in the methodological part into a larger context.
In Chapter 2.1 the topic dealt with is first assigned to the associated research field. The subordinate chapters describe the human being and show in this context to what extent the digital age brings social changes. The functioning of a person's self is based on Chapter 2.2 and its subchapter. It becomes clear how the picture and, as a result, the evaluation of one's own person is composed. Before in Chapter 2.4 the derivation of the research question as well as hypotheses are presented, is carried out in Chapter 2.3 the presentation of the social network Instagram. At the same time, it will be made clear to what extent this platform favors the occurrence of social comparison processes. Following the theoretical part of this research work, the Chapter Three described the methodology of the empirical study carried out. The Chapter Four collected data presented in Chapter Five discussed in detail. Finally, the Chapter Six gives an outlook to encourage further investigation of the topic. The questionnaire used in this study can be found in the Annex.
2 Theoretical part: Background and state of research
2.1 Research Field Social Psychology
Psychology has different approaches to researching and explaining human behavior and experience. In addition to focusing on genetic or biochemical factors or on oncoming brain processes, social psychologists focus their investigations on the social environment of humans. As social psychological research shows, the nature of a person's social situation, beyond their behavior, can also control emotions and established personality traits, values or views. Accordingly, it is believed that the influence of other people is the main determinant of one's own behavior and experience (Zimbardo & Gerrig, 2004).
Probably the best-known and most frequently used definition of social psychology was formulated by Gordon Allport (1954): "Social psychology is the scientific attempt to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, and implied presence of others" (P.5).
Allport describes the influence of the "imaginary presence" of others as a behavioral influence by close caregivers such as.B the parents or the life partner, without them actually being present. On the other hand, he describes the fact that behavior is largely influenced by social roles that humans assume depending on the situation, as well as by culture-related norms, as "implicit presence" (Jonas, 2014).
It should be noted that social psychology, as a branch of psychology, deals with the interaction between the individual and the social environment. Their goal is to create a differentiated and well-founded understanding of human experience and behavior (Lück, 2016).
2.1.1 The human being
Every person is unique. The evolutionary transmission of the human genome goes hand in hand with a great variety of different individualities. As individuals, humans are characterized by their personal characteristics and unique character traits. While one person is characterized by sporting talent and high self-confidence, for example, another can stand out for his extraordinary helpfulness and a great sense of responsibility.
However, all people have one thing in common, the basic psychological need for belonging (Vester, 2009). This is due to the fact that a cognitive-emotional relationship is already developing between mother and child while it is still in the womb (Strauss & Bade, 2002). As soon as the newborn sees the world, he is already fully integrated into an existing social system, namely his family. The fact that man is a social being is therefore a natural fact (Vester, 2009). henceforth the environment is shaped by other people with whom different relationships are maintained.
As Gordon Allport (1954) notes, thinking and behavior, as well as motivations and emotions, relate to and are influenced by people around them. The number of areas subject to this influence makes it clear that, among other things, the well-being of an individual is significantly dependent on external factors (Schoenaker, 2006). The fact that one can hardly escape these influences, i.e. the (imaginary) presence and thus influence of other people on oneself is unavoidable, may seem frightening. At the same time, however, it is responsible for how far the human species has evolved (Kessler & Fritsche, 2018) .
According to Kessler and Fritsche (2018), "not only outstanding achievements such as the moon flight (...) the product of a multi-layered division of labor and were based on the knowledge of unmistakable generations, our everyday supply of food, education or entertainment - but also social exclusion, oppression and war - would hardly be possible without complex social cooperation" (p.2).
Because the human species is so complex, the social orientation and integration of individuals requires diverse thought processes. Interpersonal interactions involve both the assessment of one's own person and the reaction resulting from the practiced behavior (Traut-Mattausch, Petersen, Wesche, & Frey, 2011). The importance of a relationship depends on the human being of his interaction partner. thereby can be divided into close and comparatively non-binding or temporary relationships (Kessler & Fritsche, 2018). For humans, for example, it is more relevant how parents, friends or life partners react to their own behavior than the reaction of a work colleague or cashier in the supermarket. However, the basis for a deep connection is not limited to genetics or affection for a person. Similarly.B the collective pursuit of certain ideas or ideologies can trigger a strong sense of belonging (Kessler & Fritsche, 2018). In this regard, young people who join sects or even terrorist organizations are an example. Often, such decisions are characterized by the fact that those affected do not accept themselves from close people and, conversely, do not feel connected to them. If the person is integrated into a group in which he experiences acceptance, this has a positive effect on self-esteem. Cohesion reinforces the belief in one's own abilities and the will to use them for the benefit of the community (Traut-Mattausch et al., 2011).
It is thus clear to see that human well-being and the value that individuals attribute to themselves are subject to the influence of external factors (Schoenaker, 2006).
2.1.2 Digital sociality
As the successor to telegraphy, telephony, radio and television, the Internet represents the most revolutionary technical development in terms of interpersonal communication. Independent of space and time, it enables direct interaction with other people (Bargh & McKenna, 2004). As Krotz, Despotović and Kruse (2014) explain, "mediatized worlds (...) its inhabitants a series of interaction possibilities, the special technical conditions of which decisively shape social situations and social relationships" (p.53). There is no denying that the use of the Internet is becoming increasingly relevant in the everyday lives of children, adolescents and adults. Because humans naturally strive for belonging and social exchange (see Chapter 2.1.1), it is not surprising that they make use of the possibilities of digital progress. Sociality means those basic psychological needs. Digital sociality therefore encompasses the scope of possibilities for satisfying needs in digital worlds.
The so-called "uses-and-gratifications approach" essentially deals with the question of how and why people, based on their needs, take advantage of specific media offers. The basic assumption underlying this approach is that the recipient acts for the purpose of his own benefit (Aelkar, 2016). As a potential added value, only a few are mentioned with the exchange of information, the cultivation of relationships and self-entertainment (Ebersbach, Glaser & Heigl, 2016) . As early as 1971, the Canadian psychologist Berlyne described basic human stimuli that acquire a hedonistic value when excited, i.e. trigger a sense of pleasure in the recipient (Berlyne, 1971). In addition to elementary stimuli (e.g. visual and auditory preparation) and key stimuli for drive actions, he lists so-called "collative" variables. These are comparative variables, as received stimuli are compared with existing memory contents. At its core, these include novelty, uncertainty and complexity. While Berlyne (1971) describes "novelty" as the difference between memory content and experienced stimuli, he refers to the probability with which an event is expected as a variable for uncertainty. The complexity of media offerings depends on the extent to which independent elements are integrated into a larger framework. According to Berlyne (1971), by arousing these stimuli, media gain the desired attention and curiosity of the recipient.
The assumption that basic human needs are constant goes hand in hand with the fact that the media industry is constantly trying to adapt its offerings to them. Thus, countless competitors compete for the interest of the recipient. First and foremost, social networks and intelligence services should be mentioned. In November 2018, 2.6 billion people were already using Instagram, Facebook, WhatsApp or Messenger. Two billion of these people use one of these services daily (Rising Media Ltd. A, 2018).
Through his research, the social psychologist Leon Festinger (1954) came to the conclusion that people use comparisons to similar people in order to gain insights into their own person. It helps them to classify themselves as individuals in a social system and satisfies the basic need for self-knowledge (Kessler & Fritsche, 2018). Young people in particular are in the process of self-discovery (Vivienne, 2016). This could be one reason why a significant increase in the activity of young people in social networks is constantly emerging. Since its launch in 2010, by January 2018, approximately 61 million boys and girls between the ages of 13 and 17 worldwide had registered on Instagram (We Are Social, 2018). In addition to the "real" social situations that take place, for example, at school, the digitally prepared identities provide a not to be underestimated opportunity to compare oneself with others (Vivienne, 2016). The comparison with fellow human beings can have both positive and negative effects on one's own person. However, studies that deal with the consequences of social comparison in social networks show increasingly negative effects. For example, studies by Haferkamp and Krämer (2011) show that looking at subjectively attractive profile photos leads to increased dissatisfaction with one's own appearance. Of course, this does not mean that social networks are the origin of human comparison. Leon Festinger presented his theory of social comparison as early as 1954, almost 40 years before the Internet revolutionized the world with the emergence of the World Wide Web. Humans are naturally oriented towards differentiating themselves from others through comparison and thus gaining knowledge about themselves (Festinger, 1954). However, the digital playgrounds expand the possibilities to do this enormously.
2.2 The Self
To explain the self-concept, also called self-schema, it is necessary to first explain the meaning of the "self". So what is a person's self?
In psychology, the term "the self" is often used. The term describes the idea that people perceive themselves as individual and self-determined acting beings and thus includes examining how they do this (Staemmler, 2015). "Although the self with its perceptions, thoughts, feelings and motivations usually controls everyday life imperceptibly as a subject ("I"), the self is also an object of our perception ("me")" (Kessler & Fritsche, 2018, p.72). The division of the self into I and myself was carried out as early as 1890 by the philosopher and psychologist William James (1890). While the I characterized by an internal, perceptive and knowing observer of one's own person, according to Williams, the myself, the perceived self and accordingly the self-image, i.e. the self-concept of a person (Staemmler, 2015).
2.2.1 Self-concept
Man proceeds in the same way in the perception of himself as in the perception of his fellow human beings. It forms a concept of its self. The sources from which an individual obtains his knowledge of his own person are shown in a further subdivision James (1890). For the conception of the self, therefore, the material self, which includes the physical (physical) self. Furthermore, the social self, which forms the awareness of how one is perceived by others as well as the spiritual self. The latter describes the self as a guardian of personal feelings and thoughts (Zimbardo & Gerrig, 2004). The totality of all three Me's are therefore to be understood as carriers of information about the self. They form the basis of a person's self-schema.
"Who am I?", "What can I do?", "What distinguishes me?" - People deal with these supposedly simple and yet complex questions from time to time. Answering these questions helps individuals to maintain their self-concept. This includes all characteristics that people attribute to themselves with regard to their characteristics and abilities. In the course of different life experiences, their opinion is formed as to whether they are, for example, physically attractive, charismatic, intelligent or ambitious. The totality of these perceptions, which are both descriptive and evaluative, then create the self-concept of one's own person (Traut-Mattausch et al., 2011).
As Mummendey (1995) notes, "self-concepts are to be understood as attitudes, namely as attitudes with the peculiarity that the setting object is one's own person" (p. 55). This view of the self-concept could support the assumption that this is a relatively stable and persistent concept. Nevertheless, social psychologists emphasize that a person's self-concept can be different depending on the situation (Kessler & Fritsche, 2018).
Norbert Schwarz (1987) achieved the same insight by means of a simple experiment. He divided the test subjects into two groups and asked them to assess their own assertiveness. While each subject from group 1 was asked to give six examples that show their own assertive behaviors, each participant from group 2 was asked for twelve examples. It was relatively easy for the people from the first group to recall six examples. On the other hand, the subjects from the second group had difficulty giving sufficient examples of their own assertiveness. Subsequently, the subjects from group 2 rated their assertiveness significantly lower.
Schwarz's experiment (1987) makes it clear that assessments of personal characteristics and abilities, i.e. self-concept, can vary depending on situational factors. Despite this, this does not have to rule out the possibility that the self-concept is reasonably stable and persistent. For the "human being represents different social and situational identities, and yet he is always identical with himself. He presents different types of self and at the same time has a relatively stable self-concept" (Mummendey, 1995, p.57). Imagine, for.B, a graph that runs constantly in one direction, but at the same time also has upward and downward swings. In a figurative sense, this is also the case with a person's self-concept. The answers that people give themselves to the questions "Who am I?", "What can I do?" and "What distinguishes me?" aim "relatively" in the same direction. The self-image can still deviate from the highly individual self-perception depending on the situation. For example, a basketball player could perceive himself as extraordinarily athletically talented during his youth. If he were to be taken over into a professional team for the first time at the age of 25, then there would be the possibility that he would no longer perceive himself as extraordinarily athletically talented due to his new environment, the comparatively much more experienced teammates.
The self-concept "can therefore generally be defined as a person's knowledge of himself, which is determined by both accumulated past and current, situational experiences" (Kessler & Fritsche, 2018, p. 73).
2.2.2 Self-esteem
As can be seen from chapter 2.2.1, the self-concept is to be understood as an attitude towards oneself. Just as attitudes to facts are cognitive and evaluative, so are those that flow into the self-concept. The expression of self-esteem is expressive, because it gives exclusion about how one's own person is perceived and consequently evaluated (Zimbardo & Gerrig, 2004). Self-esteem can now be understood as "a generalized judgmental attitude toward the self that influences both mood and behaviors and exerts a strong influence on a range of personal and social behaviors" (Zimbardo & Gerrig, 2004, p. 634). The self-esteem (or self-esteem) of a person is thus composed of the evaluations of the self-assessed characteristics, abilities and views. For example, the assessment "I am trustworthy" results in the rating "It is good that I am trustworthy". The information that is incorporated in this regard has an individually different significance. For example, a person could perceive himself as mathematically untalented and at the same time attribute a low relevance to this area in terms of self-worth. Depending on the subjective prioritization of the information, the significance for self-esteem arises (Mummendey, 1995). Here, considering the fact that self-worth results from the evaluation of the information that flows into the self-concept, the connection becomes clear. Self-esteem is formed depending on the self-concept.
Research results show that people who have a less pronounced self-concept also have a lower self-esteem (Kuonath, Frey & Schmidt-Huber, 2016) . Zimbardo and Gerrig (2004) also state: "Low self-esteem is characterized in part by the fact that there is less certainty about the self" (p.634). Both the abundance and the orientations of perceptions to the self influence the permanence and expression of a person's self-esteem.
2.2.2.1 Implicit and explicit self-worth
It is between the Implicit and Explicit Trait and State self-esteem. While implicit self-esteem becomes increasingly stable with increasing life experience, explicit self-esteem always varies depending on the situation (Rosenberg, Schooler, Schoenbach & Rosenberg, 1995). Implicit self-worth is understood as self-evaluation, the process of which is both automatic and unconscious. From it, mainly conclusions can be drawn about spontaneous behavior. On the other hand, controlled behavior can be interpreted much better by analyzing explicit self-worth (Petersen, Stahlberg & Frey, 2006). As Petersen et al. (2006) are "in this situationally varying self-esteem (...) represents only those subjective evaluations that are activated by situational circumstances or by motives" (p.40).
Take, for example.B an employee who is generally convinced of his professional abilities, but immediately before an important lecture, receives negative feedback regarding his performance from his superior. As a result, the employee could be noticeably insecure during his lecture.
In order to understand to what extent social situations affect explicit self-esteem, it is necessary to explain which different segments make up it. With the aim of capturing situational self-worth, Heatherton and Polivy (1991) developed three subdimensions that make up explicit self-worth. They distinguish between the performance-related ("performance self-esteem"), the appearance or external appearance ("appearance self-esteem") and the social ("social self-esteem") self-esteem. The above example would therefore be Performance self-esteem Associate. Appearance self-esteem includes satisfaction with the external appearance. On the other hand, Social self-esteem the extent to which a person feels safe within social situations or interactions of themselves (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).
With regard to the interaction between implicit and explicit self-worth, it is assumed that sub-areas of explicit self-worth have an effect on the implicit one especially if they concern a subdimension on which the individual self-worth is based. This means that the effect of the explicit on the implicit self-esteem, the influence of the subjectively perceived pertinence is subject. For some people, performance is more important than appearance or vice versa. Also the frequency as well as the assignment of a Significance of situations that occur that affect a sub-area of explicit self-worth play a decisive role (Schütz, 2003). This can be illustrated by another example:
Overall, one student is satisfied with her appearance. Because most people from her social environment use Instagram, she decides to sign up as well. Within two weeks, the girl posts three photos showing her outward appearance. She notes that she receives significantly fewer "likes" compared to other people. As a result, she might start thinking about whether she looks less good than the others. If the student were to leave it at these three posts, it would be likely that her experience with the platform, which in this case has the subdimension Appearance self-esteem does not have a decisive effect on implicit self-esteem. With the opposite reaction, i.e. the increased user behavior through more intensive self-presentation, and consistent resonance, the probability of an effect would be greater (see aspect of frequency). Suppose the resonance to her appearance is reflected in writing comments on her photos and she would be publicly declared unattractive. Then she could attach a higher importance to the situational reaction of her social environment, which would also make it more likely that her experiences would have an impact on implicit self-esteem (cf. aspect of personal significance).
The self-esteem of man represents a construct of social psychology that has been researched in many ways. This is partly due to the fact that the construct was already understood as a predictor of academic achievement in 1990 (Marsh, 1990). Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger and Vohs (2003) also find in subsequent studies that there is a long-term relationship between a person's self-esteem and well-being. Self-esteem could also be defined as a factor that influences both satisfaction in love relationships and the tendency to engage in criminal acts (Orth & Robbins, 2014).
The following chapters serve the purpose of explaining from which sources information about the self is obtained and, as a result, evaluations of one's own person are derived.
2.2.3 Sources of self-concept and self-worth
As in Chapter 2.2.1 Self-concept has been described, the Material, Social and Spiritual I, the carriers of self-related information (Zimbardo & Gerrig, 2004). The sources of self-esteem can therefore be used by the various Me's associate.
It is helpful to start with the Duval and Wicklund (1972) developed theory of self-attention. This states that a person's attention is generally directed inwards or outwards. So while one person with the goal of self-knowledge can focus more on the self, another person can focus primarily on external sources, such as.B the consent of others. The latter is also understood as "subjective self-attention". The human being is regarded as a subject whose self-concept is predominantly shaped by external influences. On the other hand, "objective self-attention" means that the person focuses on himself as an object (Traut-Mattausch et al., 2011). Studies also show the correlation between a high level of self-esteem and a more intensive orientation towards internal sources (Petersen et al., 2006). the Self- and External perception the social feedback as well as the social comparison are mostly regarded as fundamental sources of self-concept and thus also of self-worth (Petersen et al., 2006).
In view of the research question of this work, the focus of the following presentations is in particular on the social comparison, as a source of self-concept and self-worth.
2.2.3.1 Self-perception
If an individual intends to assess the characteristics and abilities of a fellow human being, close observation helps to draw relevant conclusions (Bem, 1972). The self-perception theory of the social psychologist Daryl Bem (1972) states that this method is also effective for one's own person. "People perceive their own behaviors, feelings, thoughts and physical states and draw conclusions about their own abilities and characteristics from this introspection" (Traut-Mattausch et al., 2011, p. 21). Accordingly, the material self, which includes the physical self as well as the spiritual self, which monitors one's own emotional states and thoughts.
Furthermore, the self-perception theory describes that people are not able to interpret or name all internal states. This is due to the fact that these also occur unconsciously. In an insightful introspection, an individual must try to see himself as an outsider because of this. With regard to self-perception, it is therefore important to analyze one's own behavior and to derive internal information from it. The process must therefore be compared with that which serves to make assessments of others (Bem, 1972). For example, from the observation that one behaves very quietly within a new group, the conclusion can be drawn that one is a shy person. However, identifiable circumstances are always taken into account for conclusion (Kessler & Fritsche, 2018). In this sense, situational factors, e.B. that the members of the group seemed very dissimilar to oneself, could justify the silent appearance of one's own person.
It should not be forgotten that information is processed differently depending on how it could affect self-esteem (Traut-Mattausch et al., 2011). In this respect, chapter 2.2.4 follows Self-esteeming processes a detailed explanation.
As in Chapter 2.1.1 The human being, man is by nature a social being who always strives for the basic psychological need for belonging (Vester, 2009). Therefore, it is also relevant for self-esteem to what extent a person perceives himself as belonging to society or groups. According to Denissen, Schmitt, Penke and Van Aken (2008), perceived self-esteem decreases when an individual experiences social exclusion. On the other hand, it increases through the feeling of acceptance and belonging. As a result, the social connection is not to be seen as the consequence, but as the basis of a positively pronounced self-worth.
2.2.3.2 External perception and social feedback
People include perceptions related to their characteristics and abilities, especially on the part of people important to them, into the self-concept. This assumption was made by supporters of symbolic interactionism as early as the early 20th century (Traut-Mattausch et al., 2011). The sociologist Charles Cooley (1902) manifested this statement by means of his developed image of the "looking-glass self" (known as the "looking-glass effect, among others"). This term is often referred to the "mirror image effect" in German-speaking countries. According to Cooley (1902), the self-concept can be compared with different mirror images of one's own person. Each of these mirror images shows the perception of others (the perception of others to the self) of one's own person from the point of view of a significant fellow human being (Petersen et al., 2006). Imagine that three mirrors represent the perception from the point of view of the mother, the partner and the ex-girlfriend. It quickly becomes clear how different the external perception can be. Because relationships with loved ones have a greater influence on emotions and thoughts and are therefore of higher importance, the information resulting from the assessed perception of others flows into the concept of the self. They thus also have an effect on self-esteem (Traut-Mattausch et al., 2011).
People can also gain information about the self based on social interactions. More specifically, it is social feedback that additionally affects a person's self-esteem. These can occur in the form of verbally communicated information or on the basis of the interpretation of the behavior of fellow human beings (Kessler & Fritsche, 2018).
The latter could also be confirmed repeatedly in experiments by Meyer and Plöger (1979). Thus, students were given an easy task, for the solution of which they were then highly praised. The students derived the realization that they had received little confidence in their abilities in advance. Other students were given a comparatively difficult task that they could not solve. After being subsequently criticized for their performance, they interpreted from the behavior of the test leaders that they had previously been given great confidence in their abilities.
The experiment proves that self-image and thus self-esteem can be influenced by the behavior of others. As well-founded research results also shows, social feedback in particular flows into the self-concept that deviates positively from the previous self-perception (Frey, Baldwin & Crott, 1984). How this is done is set out in Chapter 2.2.4 Self-valued processes explained in more detail.
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