Historical Dynamism and the Power of Song and Dance in the Preservation of Indigenous Knowledge and Cultural Heritage among the Pre-Colonial Gusii of South Western Kenya

Abstract

This paper presents an overview exposition and critical reflection on the role played by oral arts and performance throught history as far as the preservation of African indigenous knowledge and moral ethics is concerned.This study takes songs and dances among the Gusii of south-western Kenya as its unit of study . It seeks to address fundamental issues that are in the verge of being forgotten especially by the youth of this generation. It argues that music and dance among the Gusii have traditional roots and serves as a source of understanding the cultural history of the community as part of indigenous knowledge moral and societal ethics. Indeed, without knowledge of a community’s cultural history, the historical destiny, indigenous knowledge and moral education cannot be easily comprehended. This history makes it one of the most essential genres that the Gusii community employs to explore the past indigenous education through musical and dance generic forms. This paper proceeds from the premise that, in the pre-colonial times, the

Gusii had evolved elaborate music and dance forms conditioned by their social and natural environments. It can also established in this discussion that African music and dance, as practised by the Gusii nurtured, enhanced, preserved and brought up emotionally, psychologically, ethically, socially stable and a unitary indigenous community. The theories employed to explain the phenomenon of the functionality of among the Gusii pre-colonial music and dance indigenous knowledge preservation and moral education were, Evolution, Diffusion, functionalism and theories of dance. The Study methodology into historical enquiry of the pre-colonial music and dance was carried out in three major phases as follows; employing data collection techniques on a systematic basis beginning with secondary sources in libraries, the marshalling of primary source materials in the Kenya National Archives, and the gathering of data through oral interviews and observations in the research field. In this study, respondents were selected through snowball and purposive sampling techniques in order to obtain key custodians of the Gusii cultural history. Oral interviews were conducted between 1996 and 1998.Respondents included sixty elderly men and women from Gusii land thought to be knowledgeable on the community’s cultural history. The data collected from both primary and secondary sources was sorted and analysed qualitatively. From the study findings, it was established that music and dance practices among the Gusii reflected the community’s identity preservation of indigenous knowledge and moral education, as vital artistic medium, through which people embody the concept of self. This study will contribute to the understanding of African cultural history and indigenous knowledge even before the coming of the Europeans. Planners in the ministry of Education, culture and social services may use these findings in the planning of socio-cultural activities in perpetuating cultural identity and preservation of African indigenous knowledge and history in General. In this paper,Gusii songs have been written in their original language and then given literal translation and functional analysis.

1.0 Introduction

Pre-colonial African traditional music and dance among the Abagusii and that of other African communities, in the field of African popular culture,is at the verge of being forgotten especially by young generations. As part of research in the study of African ethnomusicology, this paper discusses and offers a scholarly contribution in the study of African indigenous knowledge and moral education. It focuses on critical issues on the evolution and development of the Gusii songs and dances in the pre-colonial period education and moral values. The paper demonstrates that songs and dances Among the Gusii, as was the case with other African ethnic communities, evolved and developed independently even before the coming of the Europeans and had well understood functions. It seeks to safeguard important historical aspects of the Gusii popular culture in the understanding of African indigenous education and ethno-graphical studies. This paper is built on the premises thatPeople’s culture must have an origin and it is synonymous with their civilization, with all its process of continuity and change. Culture finds expression in people’s values, beliefs and rituals as well as their material well being (or possession). It is reflected by their songs, dances, drama and language. It rests in people’s social, economic, judicial, political and value systems¹. The implication here is that cultural identity of a people is based upon, and consists of, the totality of their values, norms, traditions, language and their inward and outward manifestations all of which constitute indigenous knowledge. These combine and bestow upon a people or ethnic group a particular identity. A historical study of culture therefore encompasses broad descriptions of leading institutions, prevailing values, and change through time as well as cultural flows through space. Any element of culture such as songs, dances and drama has an origin and development over a given period of time². Culture grows in two ways. First, through invention of new traits within the culture secondly, through the diffusion of new traits outside the culture³.

1.1 Objective and Justification of the Study of the study

The central objective of this study was to examine the place of songs and dances and their role in the preservation of indigenous knowledge and cultural ethics among the Gusii of Kenya in the pre-colonial period. The specific objectives of the study were; to trace the historical evolution of the Gusii songs and dances, to establish the nature and the kind of songs sung, instruments made and used as well as the dances performed by the Gusii community, to investigate the changes that occurred in the Gusii songs and dances as a result of contact with other African communities in Kenya in pre-colonial period and to examine the role played by songs and dances in the cultural in the preservation of the community’s cultural heritage.

This study contributes to the understanding of African cultural history in general. In tracing the evolution, development and continuity of the Gusii songs and dances, the study illuminates and documents the cultural aspects of Africa’s cultural history, often neglected by historians, sociologists, philosophers as a preservation of African indigenous knowledge and cultural ethics. Historians, sociologists, philosophers, anthropologists and music lovers and specialists will benefit from this study in that it will widen their knowledge of Africa’s popular culture. Songs and dances are educative aspects of our cultural heritage and reflect a community’s identity, since they are all, vital artistic medium, through which people embody the self-image. Planners in the culture and social services may use research findings from this study in the planning of socio-cultural activities and festivals. The study may be of use to those who would want to understand the cultural history of the Gusii and other communities in Kenya, as well as Africa in general. The understanding of the history of songs and dances songs and dances may be used to enhance cultural heritage both at local, national and international levels.

1.2 Methods of study

The Study methodology into historical enquiry of the pre-colonial music and dance as part of understanding of cultural preservation and indigenous knowledge was carried out in three major phases as follows; employing data collection techniques on a systematic basis beginning with Secondary sources which included; Library materials such as published books and articles, theses, dissertations, journals, conference and seminar papers The main institutions where these materials were obtained included; the Main Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences and Laikipia Campus Libraries of Egerton University, the Jomo Kenyatta Memorial Library of the University of Nairobi, Kenyatta University’s Moi Library and the Institution’s Music Department.

Themarshalling of primary source materials was conducted whereby, Archival research was carried out at the Kenya National Archives (KNA), Nairobi. The main documents studied included; Provincial (Nyanza) and District (South Kavirondo or South Nyanza after 1948) Annual and Quarterly reports and those documents relating to the integration of the Gusii socio-economic traditional life to the colonial capitalist socio-economic policies. However specific documents relating to Gusii songs and dances were lacking. This therefore necessitated the researcher to go out to the field throughout Gusiiland for field interviews. In this case, gathering of data was achieved through oral interviews and observations in the field .Field interviews were conducted on the basis of prepared Sample Questions. During the period of field interview, the researcher either was introduced by those close to the informant or did self-introduction and explained the purpose of the study. During the interviews data was either recorded in cassette tapes or taken in note form. Either case depended mainly on the informants’ moods and preferences. To avoid misinterpretation of the meaning that could have arisen from too literal translation, tape recorded material could be transcribed at the end of each working day. Those who were interviewed included knowledgeable Gusii men and women who were identified by purposive sampling technique. Custodians of Gusii songs and dances, music teachers in both pimary, secondary and Teachers’ Training Colleges (TTCs) and the Gusii renown musicians who included Christopher Monyoncho and Isaac Otwori were all interviewed. In total about 50 informants were interviewed. The interviews were however, not entirely based on sample questions. Other questions often arose in the course of the interview. Respondents were interviewed on the areas they were conversant with.

Former college mates, most of who are teaching in various secondary schools all over Gusiiland contributed a lot to this research as my research assistants. After a brief training and rehearsing of sample questions, these research assistants were able to carry out the interviews successfully.

Every effort was made to visit the National Museum establishments to study musical instruments. The data collected from secondary sources and the field was classified, verified and analysed thematically. After which it was sorted out and placed on the various themes as they occurred in the different historical periods. Finally, the data was compiled into this work.

1.3 Theoretical framework

In analysing the history of music and dance among the Gusii,we mainly applied sociological approaches and thus enriching the perspective of cultural change with the vigour of historical method.⁴. In a sense, cultural change has been perceived as constituting significant alterations which take place in social structures and social practices.⁵ Four theories were employed in the study. These were; evolution, diffusion, functionalism, and the theories of dance. As far as evolution theory is concerned, some aspects of modern cultures seem to have evolved independently and grew with time. Evolutionary theories were mainly developed by Charles Darwin in his book The Origin of species.It was established from the field that some aspects of Gusii dance and music traditions seem to have evolved and developed independently. According to diffusion theory, most of the content of modern cultures appears to have been gained through the process of diffusion. The term diffusion refers to the borrowing of cultural elements from another society in contrast to their independent invention within the host society. In order for diffusion to operate on a substantial scale, there must be separate societies that have existed long enough to have elaborated distinctive ways of life.⁶

Culture has grown, through a combination of the processes of invention and diffusion. It grew very slowly at first, mostly as a result of invention and as societies became differentiated the large scale diffusion of traits became possible and the rate of cultural growth speeded up. In modern times and particularly in western world, the rate of cultural growth has become overwhelming. Diffusion theory was important to our study of Gusii song and dances in that it has largely concerned itself, among other things, to the detailed study of the relationship between musical instruments in Africa with those of other parts of the world particularly south west and south east Asia and to a much less degree the diffusion of instruments or their names within the continent.⁷ According to Nketia, these studies have been based on observation of materials, features of design and construction and certain ethnological postulations, the measurement of tuning systems and the application to the method of comparative linguistics to the analysis and the classification of names of musical instruments in selected culture areas.⁸

B. Manfred has made large claims on the settlement by the Indonesian colonies not only of Madagascar but also to the East Coast of Africa, the Congo basin and parts of west Africa. These claims have largely been based on remarkable similarities of certain musical instruments which suggest something more than mere “coincidence”. The xylophone for example, is said to be too complicated to have been invented in two separate places.⁹ We shall apply this theory in the study of the origin, development and existence of the Gusii songs and dances.

Functionalist theory of culture is another model than can be used in our study. The most important principle lies in the functional concept of culture. The modern anthropologist of the fictional theory is fully aware that he has to organise his evidence, relate the customs, ideas and practices to the fundamental core round which they are built.¹⁰

To the functionalists, culture is the whole body of implements, the charter of social groups, human ideas, beliefs and customs. It constitutes a vast apparatus by which man is put in a position which is better to cope with the concrete and specific problems which face him in his adaptation to his environment, in the course of satisfaction to his needs. Technical skills as well as organisation are based on the development of symbolism of abstract concept primarily embodied in knowledge, belief of legal systems and societal constitutions. To the functionalists. The use of language, tradition and education, that is, the continuity of tradition are made possible.

This theory becomes meaningful to our study in that it recognizes the fact that creative activities such as singing, dancing, decorative arts and sculpture are functional in nature. The theory argues that artistic activities are forwarded on the physiology of sense stimulation and muscular as well as nervous processes. Dance, games and sports have practical importance. A functionalist approach to the role of dances is that the basic condition for an orderly social existence depends on the transmission and maintenance of culturally desirable sentiments.

Associated with this model is the cathartic theory. It is rooted in the notion that dancing may have some therapeutic value. Music and dancing especially rhythms, effects of musical instruments such as drums, can create tension, anxiety and stress under certain condition and release the same.¹¹ The history of dances will then be of great importance for the study of mankind. This theory became meaningful in the study of Gusii dances and their accompanying songs.

1.4 Gusii people

The Gusii,who are sometimes referred to as Abagusii, are linguistically Bantu, who inhabit the south-western part of Kenya in the African Continent ,tracing their origins to a place called Misiri¹². This place does not seem to be the Biblical Egypt but a location just to the north of mount Elgon¹³. In this area, the Abagusii are believed to have been together with the Ganda and Soga of Uganda, the Agikuyu, the Kamba, Meru, Abasuba, Avaragoli, the Bukusu and the Abakuria who also live in Kenya.The Abagusii refer to all these people as abanto baito (our people)¹⁴. Suffice it to note that linguists, anthropologist and historians who have studied Bantu societies agree that traditionally and linguistically, the Abagusii are related to the people they claim as their people, the Bantu.

Throughout its history, with new inventions, the cultural base of the Abagusii, songs and dances inclusive, was enlarged and potential number of new combinations of existing elements multiplied. The contact between the Abagusii and other communities such as the Luo, the Nandi, the Kipsigis, the Maasai and the Abakuria, contributed to a great extent to the evolution and the development of the Gusii songs and dances in the Pre-colonial Period.¹⁵

In the Pre-colonial era, Proper organisation pattern of songs and dances among the African Communities in general lacked. It was more rigid than it is today judging from oral tradition about social control. There were songs and dances for individuals and social groups as well as the institutions that served them. There were occasions when such groups met for the purpose of recreation or ritual. Hence the encouragement of political organisation, the creation of new social groups, the creation of new ceremonies and festivals as well as the adoption of new customs and beliefs led to the evolution of songs and dances among African societies.¹⁶

The early Abagusii songs and dances required a corresponding re-organisation both in respect to the participants and the provision of appropriate musical types. The impetus for change did not always come from within. The musical traditions of the community’s neighbours like those ones of the Luo, Maasai, Kipsigis and Kuria sometimes provided stimulus for the direction of songs and dances among the Abagusii. But this often depended on the special relationships defined by cultural affinity, political superiority, mutual respect and the degree of their tolerance that their respective musical system provided as well as the adoption of new elements of features.¹⁷

The evolution and development of the Gusii songs and dances seem to have revolved around their contact with the environment, their political and social institutions, and relations with their neighbours, religious values, warfare and trade among other things. According to W.R Ochieng, the Abagusii evolved in the course of three centuries starting from 17th century, when they appear to have become a distinct group. to the coming of the Europeans, in the second half of the 19th Century¹⁸.

Economically, the Gusii Highland environment had a lot of effects on the Gusii way of life. Rich volcanic soils, and reliable rainfall, ensured heavy yields of sorghum, millet, vegetables and bananas. The Abagusii of course were aware of their God (Engoro) who gave them good harvest and therefore started thanking Him through songs and dances¹⁹.

1.5 Gusii traditions and the origin of songs

Among the Abagusii all young people of a clan were informally instructed in the traditions of their ancestors and society. After evening meals they would assemble around fires in the huts of elders who told them tribal traditions like stories, myths, riddles and legends. The elders answered questions from the youths that were directed to all aspects of the Abagusii life. To arouse interest and memorisation power of the youth in the community’s traditions, elders could use songs and dances. Songs especially touched on very interesting aspect of Abagusii traditions and hence kept the youth attentive so that they could listen to stories, myths, riddles and taboos for long hours.

Tradition, thus was not merely

Some sentiments, or theoretical, or merely

dead dogma but rather, a relevant

and practical aspect of live of the community

which was handed down from generation

to generation and which was therefore

a living embodiment of the past and present²⁰.

Songs, dances, riddles and storytelling ensured memorisation and enhancement of the Abagusii tradition among the youth. Historical events of the past formed the ordinary conversational topics of the Abagusii elders when they were assembled around beer pots drinking, and everyone was proud to be able to add some fresh dimension and details to the already accepted versions. To keep them in good spirits, Abagusii elders could start singing and dancing around beer pots in praise of new ideas and wise thinking aimed at enhancing the creation of stable society. In their singing and dancing, the elders imitated the wild animals and birds which they hunted. This kind of imitation was done at the climax of singing and dancing. It was only done for some songs.

From their own traditions, it is evident that the Abagusii who had settled at Kisumu during their early migration experienced a ‘terrible famine in the region. We learn from A.N. Ochoke that:

There was neither food, fruits, nor crops.It was a terrible famine. The story was that whoever had his brother got hold of his hands and went to a new region occupied by relatives who had gone before to see whether they could get food.²¹

As the Abagusii migrated from Kisumu to Kano they found life more comfortable as they could now cultivate crops and raise animals for food. It was at his time that they composed songs to remind them the experience they had encountered at Kisumu. The following was one of such a songs:

Enchara nembe yaitire Mogusii

Echara nembe yaitire Mogusii

Baminto aara Kisumo

Yaitire Mogusii

Torende endagera yaito

baminto Mwamogusii.

Famine is terrible it has stricken Mogusii

Famine is terrible it has stricken Mogusii

Surely there at Kisumo

It has stricken Mogusii

Let us take care of our food

All of us the Abagusii.

This songs since composed has been passed over from one generation to another so as to encourage people to take care of food resources lest they were stricken by famine.

Our knowledge of present day Kisumu location would make us believe the possibility of such famine, for Kisumu, then as now, is a permanently famine stricken area. The Luo at Kisumu heavily depend on their neighbours for grain, and this is reflected in their very name Kisumo, which is derived from the Luo word “Jokisuma” which can be literally translated as “people who depend on charity.”²² From the account of Nyakundi it became evident that the Abagusii composed songs not simply for entertainment but to strengthen and make more logical or comprehensive the history of the community’s social, political and economic aspects of life. Through songs, the past life of the community has been passed from one generation to another. Trade activities between the Abagusii and the Luo in early nineteenth century led to the carrying back of musical ideas and instruments to Gusiiland. For example, the Abagusii depended on the Luo for the supply of musical instruments such as obokano, jingles, drums and beautifully decorated head dresses for different types, particularly those made from feathers of fur which Gusii harpists or lyricists wore during musical performances. Even today musical instruments like the lyre, wind-horns and flutes of the Abagusii look extremely similar to those of the Luo and are even played very similarly. Some Abagusii elders allege that in pre-colonial times some famous Luo lyricists used to perform on Gusii Highlands in the homes of famous Omogambi like Bogonko of Kitutu, Kiriama of Wanjale and Okech of South Mugirango. One such famous player was a man of Kwochia, remembered as Kawango. Because of his popularity among the Abagusii, Kawango decided to stay permanently among his fans. He used to play what Abagusii called ‘Engoma’, a guard wind instrument, which the Luo called ‘abu’. When Kawango made his intention known that he could settle in Gusiiland there was a quarrel over him at his home. The question was finally settled in favour of an elder remembered as Masururu. He gave Kawango cattle which, he latter use to marry three Abagusii ladies, namely Bosibori, Moraa and Nyaeri. All these wives bore children and together, the offspring of Masururu and Kawango formed a huge clan in Wanjare known as Mwamasururu - Nyakwambora²³. It should be noted that it was through Kawango that the early nineteenth century Abagusii lyricists like A. Ayieko, G. Ombati and N. Nyasing’a came to learn the art of playing the obokano²⁴. From these elders the art of playing the obokano spread in Gusiiland.

According to Abagusii tradition the work of hoe making and other iron implements like axes, spears, traditional razors and other implements that they exported to Luoland became an origin of songs. The blacksmiths composed songs which they sang as they worked, especially when smelting by use of bellows. The singing helped in the rhythm at the bellows, wadded off tiredness, brought enjoyment of the work and admiration from the onlookers who would often come to watch the blacksmiths or wait for their gadgets to be made. This was possible because, like the Embu, blacksmiths would collect iron sand only when the land was ‘not black,’ that was when the land was not green. The forges were normally built by the blacksmiths compounds. People were therefore available because they would not be too busy and the forges were accessible²⁵.

The blacksmiths sung to praise their work and tools, praise themselves, relate their experience or expectations or scorn those who feared the demanding work, tried to interfere or were not interested in balcksmithery. Praising his work and the expected benefits a blacksmiths would suddenly sing. The following was such a song.

Omotienyi noerete ng’a Nyangirisa o Yaye

Nyangirisa Oyaye

Omatienyi noerete ng’a Nyangirisa O yaye

Nyangirisa Oyaye

Ng’a aye eng’eria Nyangirisa O yaye

Nyangirisa O yaye

Ng’a nemeremo ngokora buya Nyangirisa

Oyaye, Nyangirisa oyaye.

The *month* is over you my customer

You my customer Oh yes

The month is over you my customer Oh yes

You my customer Oh yes

Give me my due you customer Oh yes

You my customer Oh yes

That I am now working nicely my customer

Oh yes, my customer Oh yes

[...]

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¹ G.S. Were, “Culture Renaissance and National Development: Some Reflection on Kenya’s Cultural Problem” In G.S. Were (Ed.) Journal of East African Research and Development Vol. 12. 1982, p. 2.

² B.A. Ogot, “New Trends in Cultural History ‘The silence in old narratives’” in G.S Were (E d.) Journal of East Africa research and development vol. 12 1992 pp. 38-39.

³ Quoted in R.M Kloss, et.al, Sociology with Human Face (saint Louis, 1976), p. 79.

⁴ B.A Ogot, “History, Anthropology and Social Change; The Kenya Case” in B. A. Ogot (ed.) Anthropology, History and Social change East Africa [Hadit 6] p. 1.

⁵ R.M. Kloss, Sociology with Human Face (Saint Louis, 1976), pp 79-81.

⁶ O.D. Dudley, Culture and Social Change (Chicago, 1964).

⁷ J.H. Nketia, “Historical evidence in Ga Religious Music” in the (ed.) Historian of Tropical Africa, p.279

⁸.J.H. Nketia, “The Instrumental Resources in African Music” in (ed.) Papers in African studies, No. 3, 1965.

⁹ B. Manfred, “Observation on The Study of Non-Western Music” Paul, C. (ed) in Les colloques of Wegmont. (Brussels, 1956) p.6

¹⁰ B. Malinowski, The Dynamic Culture change: An inquiry into Race Relations in Africa (London, 1945)

¹¹ P. Spencer, Society and Dance, (New York 1985).

¹² W.R Ochieng., Op.Ci t., p.12.

¹³ O.I., with Birongo Obundi, at Keroka market, on 6/8/2004.

¹⁴ O.I., with Franciscah Kemunto, at Ichuni village on 17/8/2004.

¹⁵ O.I., With S. N Mogere, at Bondaracha Village, on 3/1/1998.

¹⁶ J.H. Nketia, ‘African Gods and Music’ Universitas Vol. 1 (London, 1959) pp. 3-7.

¹⁷ O.I., With P Nyamatana, at Mwaboto Village, on 4/1/98.

¹⁸ W.R. Ochieng, Op. cit., pp. 174-176.

¹⁹ O.I., with J. Kimanga, at Mwaboto Village, on 22/10/97.

²⁰ G.S. Were., A history of the Abaluyia of Western Kenya, C 1500 - 1930 (Nairobi, 1967) p. 14.

²¹ A.N. Onchoke, ‘Okoba Omochakano bwa Abagusii, na Mogekoyo Omwabo’ A history of Kisii, University of Nairobi, History Department File RPA A/2/3.

²² W.R. Ochieng., Op. cit., p. 176.

²³ Ibid., p. 12.

²⁴ O.I., with J. Monyeka, at Gesabakwa village on 18/12/97.

²⁵ H.S.K Mwaniki, Op. cit., p. 56.