Contents
1. Introduction
2. Language Theory and a Text Analysis
2.1. A Symbiosis of Bühler’s and Jakobson’s Model of Language Theory
2.2. A Text Analysis Under Consideration of the Six Different Functions
2.2.1. The Metalinguistic Function
2.2.2. The Phatic Function
2.2.3. The Referential Function
2.2.4. The Expressive Function
2.2.5. The Function of Appeal
2.2.6. The Poetic Function
3. Conclusion
4. Literature
1. Introduction
Henry Mayhew wrote with „London Labour and the London poor“ a social report. After the Dictionary of Contemporary English a report can be defined as the following: „a written or spoken description of a situation or event, giving people the information they need.[1] “ So, reporting bases on the information and the description. But the social report we receive from Mayhew does more that just inform and describe. Although we must admit that no report can be absolutely neutral - there will always be some influence of the author in it - Mayhew’s report gets out of the limits of pure reporting. He shows his own feelings, attitudes and judgements, tries to influence people in their opinion and even uses images to describe the facts - which really goes away from neutral reporting. But the questions are, how he does it and what are his intentions in doing it. To answer these questions the use of language theory can be helpful. Especially Bühler and Jakobson have developed useful theories about functions and factors of language.
At first, these models will be explained by means of the given literature. Later, they will serve to go into the text and to answer the questions above.
2. Language Theory and a Text Analysis
2. 1. A Symbiosis of Bühler’s and Jakobson’s Model of Language Theory
The both models of language theory allow us to get a closer look at the variable functions of language. Bühler[2] offers us three different functions: the function of representation which means the mere signs of language, the function of expression, which means the way words are used in and the function of appeal describes the „tone“ a text is written in. These three functions appear in a constellation with sender, receiver and things. The sender expresses words with which a certain thing is represented. Those words reach the receiver as an appeal. In the centre of this triangle we find the words or concrete sound phenomenons. Language signs are complex and have several semantic functions. They are dependent from the sender and express his inner attitude to it. But there are also several ways how they can be received which can influence the behaviour (inward and outward) of the receiver. That means that one sign can have several ways to be sent and several to be received.
Jakobson goes even farther in offering three other functions: the phatic, the metalingual and the poetic. Each of those six functions belong to one factor that constitutes the act of speech. His model works similarly to Bühler’s but contains more factors and is more explicit: The sender sends a message to the receiver. This message needs a context to which it can reefer to be received. This context must be expressible verbally. The sender and the receiver must have a code (at least it must be understandable though not the same) in common. Finally, a medium of contact must be used that sender and receiver keep in contact.
Let us take a closer look on the single factors and in which function they occur: The sender as a factor and the expressive function belong together, because the message always contains the feelings, memories , associations and judgements of its sender. The function of appeal can be assigned to the receiver - as already mentioned at Bühler. The referential function is filled out by the factor of context. But there is no clear referential message at all because they are always influenced in some expressive way. But the referential function either loses its purity by expressive influences.
„Auch wenn die Einstellung auf einen Kontext - kurz die sogenannte referentielle, denotative’,, kognitive’ Funktion - die Hauptaufgabe vieler Nachrichten ist, muss doch die untergeordnete Teilnahme der anderen Funktionen bei solchen Nachrichten bedacht werden.“[3]
The phatic function is assigned to the medium of contact - to which telephones or letters can be counted. But also all signs of language fill out this function. The factor of code holds the metalinguistic function. This corresponds to explanations or definitions for the used terms. Normally this function appears in dictionaries of all kinds. The last pair are the factor of message and the poetic function. For Mayhew’s text it is the most important function, because „London Labour and the London Poor“ contains plenty of allegories, similes, metaphors and images. As a next step, the six different functions will be used on the text, but they are not used in the same intesity. Some occur more often, some are rather rare. So they will be analysed in detail or just mentioned with a few examples. Finally, the genre of report and the question whether the text can be counted to this genre shall be clear.
2.2. A Text Analysis Under Consideration of the Six Different Functions
2.2.1. The Metalinguistic Function
The metalinguistic function occurs in the structure of the whole text. Mayhew really defines the different classes (page 136) and explains to the reader what the differences of these classes are. There are also examples of definitions of terms:
„ The sewer-hunters were formerly, and are indeed still, called by the name of „Toshers“, the articles which they pick up in the course of their wanderings along the shore being known among themselves by the general term“tosh“, a word more particularly applied by them to anything made of copper.“[4]
These definitions and explanations help the reader to understand the text. So it is stressed that this text is for everyone, because there are no perquisites required. But all in all this function does not occur too often because the subject of the report does not really deal with specific terms. Most of the things are clear and need not be explained.
2.2.2. The Phatic Function
The phatic function should keep the contact to the reader by means of formulas, repetitions or phrases. So for sure, there are a lot of it in every text, but here the most significant repetition is again found in the structure. The three classes with their differences occur again and again. Often we can find phrases like „it may be stated“[5] or „it might be supposed“[6]. But in this text, the presence of the author in order to keep contact with the reader does not occur so often. This job is done rather by the function of appeal. In looking at this function we are reminded of the text being a report. Therefore the phatic function is not really needed because the stress is on the information. So phrases or formulas would be superfluous.
2.2.3. The Referential Function
Although „London Labour and The London Poor“ is classified as a social report the referential function, which should be the most present as it is the function of objective description, does not occur very often in its pure state, if we can speak of „pure“ at all in the context of objective describing. But, however, some few examples can be found, e.g. when Mayhew informs us about the changed situation of the chimney-sweeps: „The circumstances and character of the chimney-sweeps have, since parliament“put down“ the climbing boys, undergone considerable change.“[7] Here he just states that there is a change under influence of parliament. But the use of „put down“ influences the whole sentence with a negative undertone. The fact that it is put into quotation marks makes the negative undertone relative, because he stresses with these marks that this phrase is not his own but probably taken out of an interview with a sweep. So, this passage can be counted to the referential function, although in its conclusion (when Mayhew describes the situation of the sweeps in detail) it changes into expressive or/and conative function, because in the choice of words we can see a clear stress on the cruelty of the sweeps’situation. Another part where the reader just gets pure information is a report of the repairs in the sewer. „Of late, however, to remedy this defect, the Commissioners have had a strong brick wall built within the entrance to the several sewers.“[8] Here, the mere facts are mentioned. But in the text as a whole there are few of these examples.
2.2.4. The Expressive Function
A function which is very often used, although the text is a report on the social circumstances of the London poor and should therefore be objective, is the expressive function. Already the way in which the text is written, gives us a hint on this function: the way Mayhew introduces the different classes, coming from the more general (division into three classes) to the more concrete (who belongs to this class, what is their job) and finally taking a closer look on special „species“ of these classes, reminds us of a biological reference book about the animal world such as „Brehms Tierleben“. He explains and categorises the London poor in a way understandable for everyone. This shows that it is of an important matter for him that everyone should know about the situation of these people. In the way of reporting we can see his attitude to reduce the suffering of the poor in telling a large mass of people from this pity.
In the text itself we also find a lot of passages where he expresses his feelings and judgements towards the people he writes about. After having told the story of the bone-grubber sitting on the floor of a beer-shop (p. 136) he states: „I believe that no better description could be given of that vacuity of mind or mental inactivity which seems to form a part of the most degraded callings. The minds of such men, even without an approach to idiocy, appear to be blank.“ This sentence includes his impressions, is even a judgement about all of these poor people. But in telling the story before, describing how the man stares on the floor, already mentally materialising the bone, this judgement contains a lot of pity on the disillusioned workers. Also the anecdote about the death of a sewer-hunter shows his attitude to the circumstances under which the labourers have to work. „The labourer was found by my informant, a“shore-worker“, near the mouth of the sewer quite dead, battered, and disfigured in a frightful manner“.[9] Although this story resulted from an informant and was therefore second hand information, Mayhew uses very strong words to describe the dead worker as if he himself had been there, too, and had seen it with his own eyes. This is a way to express also the disgust felt when being informed about some of the workers’ fates. A very clear passage where he explicitly expresses his feelings is the situation when he talks to the little mud-lark. „I was so much struck with the boy’s truthfulness of manner, that I asked him, would, he really lead a different life, if he saw means of so doing?“[10]. In his writing (I was so much struck...) and in his acting (offering a job to the boy) he shows that he was so strongly moved that he even tries to change at least one worker’s fate, namely the one of the little mud-lark.
At these few examples we can see that there is a lot of expressive function in the text. We learn about the author’s feelings, attitudes and judgements. But some of these passages could also fall into another category, namely into the one of the function of appeal.
2.2.5. The Function of Appeal
This function occurs even more often than the preceding. But as already said they cannot be kept apart very clearly. Each of the mentioned anecdotes, be it the one of the bone-grubber, or about the dead sewer-hunter or especially about the mud-lark, could also be seen in the function of appeal. They all show very clearly the cruelty of the workers’ situations and are all described in a way that must arouse the pity of everyone (detailed description of the dead with horrible adjectives and of the bone-grubber staring in a paralysed way on the floor). These passages can also serve to show people that there is a necessity of changing something about the situation, especially the mud-lark anecdote. Here, the author shows that he himself is ready to start this change in offering a job to the little mud-lark and asks the people to help, too. This is even stressed by the following: „ Upon his leaving me, 2s were given him for his trouble. This small sum (I afterwards learned) kept the family for more than a fortnight.“[11] This is Mayhew’s proof that every little help can do so much good - perhaps more than anyone expects.
The several interviews he leads with the workers also seem in some passages to influence the reader in his attitude towards the labourers, for example the one he leads with a sewer-hunter.
„ The reason I likes this sort of life is, ‘cause I can sit down when I likes, and nobody can order me about. When I’m hard up, I knows as how I must work, and then I goes at it like sticks a breaking; and tho’ the times isn’t as they was, I can go now and pick up my five bob a day, where another wouldn’t know how to get a brass farden.“
In this passage, although he does not even comment on it, Mayhew manages to point out to the other people that these poor workers can even in this situation find something good about it, for example their freedom from not being ordered about by someone else. This is some kind of appeal for respect for the labourers, because they are modest and easy to satisfy, or should have the function of a mirror for all the rich who live under good circumstances but are not satisfied with what they have.
The interviews in general are a good way to underline the fact that also these poor labourers are individuals with their own stories and feelings and not an anymous mass of „the poor“. This zoom into the mass is to point out the personal fates and influence people to see the labourers as human beings which are worth to be helped.
Also the story of „the fish“[12] is a good example for the function of appeal. the story as a whole reminds us of Schiller’s poem „Der Taucher“: A poor man who has the ability to stay under water very long comes to death because of a spectaculous examination of his abilities by the king. This anecdote that reaches almost the status of a legend („at least, so say those whom there is no reason to doubt“[13] ) is to show how cruel the rich treat the poor, how they make even still use of those poor people who have nothing to lose. Also the fact that Mayhew uses this story at all, although it is even third-hand information and therefore not very reliable, stresses this appeal he wants to send out to the reader, namely to help to make an end to these conditions of cruelty under which the London poor have to live. This story can as well be counted to the poetic function as this story is a continued metaphor or allegory.
2.2.6. The Poetic Function
At first the two metaphors of „the fish“ and „the diver“[14] occur to describe the capabilities of this man who can stay under water for so long. But then this image is continued. „He was, it is said, web-footed, naturally, and partially web-fingered[15].“ Here, a real mutation takes place, to show that this man’s element is the water and that he has the best conditions to work in it. Finally, „the fish“ is tempted by the riches he wants to get out of the water and never comes up again. This is also - as already mentioned before - an allusion of the arrogant rich playing with the poor and the lack of respect for this hard working class.
Farther on, we can also find a lot of images in the whole text, for example, the description of the mud-larks.[16]
„It would be almost impossible to describe the wretched group, so motely was their appearance, so extraordinary their dress, and so stolid and inexpressive their countenances...The muddy slush was dripping from their clothes and utensils, and forming a puddle in which they stood.“[17]
This image, although Mayhew thinks it impossible to describe them, says more about the mud-larks’ outward appearance that anything else because it even stresses the poverty and leaves open to the reader to form his own image, as he likes them to see. There are no limits for the imagination of these wretches. Another description of the mud-larks is more precise and even explains where the name „mud-lark“ comes from. „He worked every day, with 20 or 30 boys, who might all be seen at daybreak with the trousers tucked up, groping about, and picking out the pieces of coal from the mud on the banks of the Thames.“[18] Here we can see the concrete image of the „lark“. Almost bird-like seem their tucked-up trousers and the „picking“ is a verb also very clearly assigned to birds, especially, when they search for food, or in this case, something to sell for food. So on the one hand the reader gets a detailed description of the mud-larks in the sense of the word, but can also imagine - only for himself- how he personally wants to see them and the amount of their suffering. Also other names of the different types of workers are metaphors and often describe the kinds of jobs by this images. The name of „the sewer-hunters“ for example tells us that they really hunt the sewer for things to sell. And considering the dangers which lurk in the sewer (e.g. rats, the tide), it can very well be compared to a jungle with wild animals, where the hunter tries to get his booty, but must take care not to become a booty himself.
„There was likewise great danger in former times from the rising of the tide in the sewers, so that it was necessary for the shore-men to have quitted them before the water had got any height within the entrance.“ „The sewer-hunters usually go in gangs of three or four for the sake of company, and in order that they may be the better able to defend themselves from the rats.“[19]
Or take the image of „the scavengers“: their job is to take what no one wants anymore, namely to collect things out of the dustbins. These „speaking names“, although Mayhew did not invent them but just uses them, also help the reader to imagine the work these labourers do and under which circumstances.
Another example for the poetic function is - again - the anecdote of the bone-grubber in the beer-shop. „They usually sat, he told me, silently looking at the corners of the floor - for they rarely lifted their eyes up - as if they were expecting to see some bones or refuse there available for their bags.“ This simile shows the bone-grubber’s mental attitude to his job: he is so fixed on finding something (to receive some money to survive) that he already has some kind of „visions“ of the bones on the ground, he even wants to see them lying there. Here the fact that this finding of bones is existential for those people is stressed.
As we can see this poetic function seems to be one of the most important, although the text is a report, for which this is really unnormal, because it should mention the mere facts (see also definition of „report“ in the introduction).
3. Conclusion
Finally, it must be admitted that it is not always easy to distinguish between the six different functions. Often, one and the same passage can have several functions at the same time. Another interesting thing is that the structure of a text can also have one of these functions as we have seen in „London Labour and the London Poor“. But when we look at the different genres of text, we often assign certain functions rather to this or that, like for example the referential function rather to an report or the poetic function rather to poems or novels. But Mayhew’s text does not really fulfil the normal schemes. It is obvious that there are a lot of facts and descriptions in this text, and that the author wants to inform people. These are factors for a report, but the way this information is presented is totally untypical: there are lots of images in it which also help to fulfil another function of this report: it is a clear appeal to the rest of society to act against such circumstances, to help these poor labourers. Even the personal feelings and attitudes of the author can be seen very often, which underlines the thesis that this text is more than a mere report.
I would say that that the first function of „London Labour and the London Poor“ is to inform, but that the appeal to the reader in it cannot be looked over. In spite of this appeal it can be counted to the genre of report because there is a lot of information in it (be it second-hand information from time to time) and shows the subject from different point of views (e.g. interviews with the concerned people). The factor of information still stays the most important.
4. Literature
- Mayhew, Henry: London Labour and the London Poor. New York, 1968.
- Bartenstein, Winfried: Arbeit mit französischen Sachtexten. Stuttgart, 1976.
- Bühler, Karl: Sprachtheorie. Die Darstellungsfunktion der Sprache. Jena, 1934. Note:1,0
[...]
[1] Longman group Ltd (Hg.): Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. München, 1995, S.1206.
[2] Bühler, Karl: Sprachtheorie. Die Darstellungsfunktion der Sprache. Jena, 1934.
[3] Nach: Bartenstein, Winfried: Arbeit mit französischen Sachtexten. Stuttgart, 1976.
[4] derselbe, S. 150.
[5] derselbe, S. 151.
[6] derselbe, S. 152.
[7] Mayhew, Henry: London Labour and the London Poor. New York, 1968, S.137.
[8] derselbe, S. 150.
[9] derselbe, S. 151.
[10] derselbe, S. 158.
[11] ebenda
[12] derselbe, S.137.
[13] ebenda
[14] ebenda
[15] ebenda
[16] derselbe, S. 156f.
[17] derselbe, S. 156.
[18] derselbe, S. 157.
Frequently asked questions
What is "London Labour and the London Poor" about?
"London Labour and the London Poor" is a social report by Henry Mayhew that goes beyond mere information and description. It explores the lives and conditions of the working class in London, revealing the author's feelings, attitudes, and judgments.
What is the purpose of the analysis presented in this text?
The purpose of the analysis is to examine how Mayhew's report conveys its message and what his intentions are. It achieves this by applying language theory, specifically the models of Bühler and Jakobson, to the text.
What are Bühler's three functions of language?
Bühler identifies three functions: the function of representation (signs of language), the function of expression (how words are used), and the function of appeal (the "tone" of the text).
What are Jakobson's six functions of language?
Jakobson expands on Bühler's model with six functions: expressive, appeal, referential, phatic, metalinguistic, and poetic. Each corresponds to a factor in the act of speech (sender, receiver, context, contact, code, and message).
How are Bühler's and Jakobson's models combined in the analysis?
The analysis uses a symbiosis of both models to examine the variable functions of language in Mayhew's text, exploring how different factors and functions interact.
What is the metalinguistic function in "London Labour and the London Poor"?
The metalinguistic function is present through definitions and explanations of different classes and terms within the text, aiming to make the report accessible to a wider audience.
How does the phatic function manifest in the text?
The phatic function appears through structural repetitions and phrases, although its presence is relatively limited compared to other functions. The author seems to prioritize information and appeal over maintaining constant contact with the reader.
How prominent is the referential function in "London Labour and the London Poor"?
The referential function, expected to be dominant in a social report, is not as prevalent in its "pure" state. Examples are found in reports of specific changes or repairs, but these are often influenced by expressive undertones.
How does the expressive function operate in Mayhew's report?
The expressive function is strongly present, revealing Mayhew's feelings, judgments, and attitudes towards the people he writes about. The structure of the text itself, similar to a biological reference book, hints at this function.
What role does the function of appeal play in influencing the reader?
The function of appeal aims to arouse pity and encourage action. Anecdotes and interviews are crafted to highlight the cruelty of the workers' situations and to inspire empathy and a desire for change.
What is the significance of the poetic function in a social report?
The poetic function is surprisingly prominent, employing metaphors, similes, and vivid imagery to create a lasting impression on the reader and underscore the harsh realities of poverty.
What are some examples of the poetic function in the text?
Examples include the metaphor of "the fish" to describe a diver, the vivid descriptions of the mud-larks, and the use of "speaking names" for different types of workers. The bone-grubber in the beer shop is a metaphor for hopelessness.
What is the conclusion of the analysis?
The analysis concludes that while "London Labour and the London Poor" is primarily an informational report, it's heavily influenced by the functions of appeal and expression. This makes it more than just a neutral account of the poor. The information remains central, qualifying it as a social report, but its presentation is far from typical, given its strong call to action.
- Quote paper
- Anonym (Author), 2000, An Analyse of Henry Mayhew´s -London labour and the London poor- under consideration of Bühler´s and Jacobson´s models of language theory, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/107691
